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Effects Of A Web Based Strategic Interactive Computer Application Fun Fraction On The Performance Of Middle School Students With Learning Disabilities In Solving Word Problems With Fractions And Multiplication
Download Effects Of A Web Based Strategic Interactive Computer Application Fun Fraction On The Performance Of Middle School Students With Learning Disabilities In Solving Word Problems With Fractions And Multiplication full books in PDF, epub, and Kindle. Read online Effects Of A Web Based Strategic Interactive Computer Application Fun Fraction On The Performance Of Middle School Students With Learning Disabilities In Solving Word Problems With Fractions And Multiplication ebook anywhere anytime directly on your device. Fast Download speed and no annoying ads. We cannot guarantee that every ebooks is available!
Book Synopsis Effects of a Web-based Strategic, Interactive Computer Application (fun Fraction) on the Performance of Middle School Students with Learning Disabilities in Solving Word Problems with Fractions and Multiplication by : Mikyung Shin
Download or read book Effects of a Web-based Strategic, Interactive Computer Application (fun Fraction) on the Performance of Middle School Students with Learning Disabilities in Solving Word Problems with Fractions and Multiplication written by Mikyung Shin and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 376 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a web-based strategic, interactive computer application (Fun Fraction) on the ability of middle school students with LD, who have mathematics goals on their IEPs, to solve word problems with fractions and multiplication including two factors of a whole number (less than or equal to 4) and proper fractions. A multiple-probe single case research design across subjects was applied for the study. Three middle school students with learning disabilities participated in baseline, intervention, and maintenance test sessions over a 13-week period. Findings showed that there was an experimental effect for all three students, tested on their instructional probes; students' performance improved from baseline to intervention phases after receiving instruction through Fun Fraction. John and Alec reached the mastery level of 80% on two of the three review days. The level of change from baseline to intervention phases ranged from 28.67% to 68.89%. Even through there was no immediacy effect for John, the trend of his data (10.33) revealed a substantial growth in general. Additionally, the percentage of data showing improvement between baseline and intervention phases was 70% for Tiffany, 56% for John, and 100% for Alec. In particular, the improvement trend of Alec's data was statistically significant (Tau[subscript novlap] = 1, p .05, CI 90% = .341
Book Synopsis The Effects of Schema-based Intervention on the Mathematical Word Problem Solving Skills of Middle School Students with Learning Disabilities by : Kyong-Eun Na
Download or read book The Effects of Schema-based Intervention on the Mathematical Word Problem Solving Skills of Middle School Students with Learning Disabilities written by Kyong-Eun Na and published by . This book was released on 2009 with total page 266 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A schema-based instruction allows students to approach a mathematics problem by focusing on the underlying semantic or problem structure, thus facilitating conceptual understanding and adequate skills. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of schema-based intervention on the mathematical word problem solving skills of middle school students with learning disabilities in grades 6 and 7. A nonconcurrent multiple baseline design was used for the study. Four middle school students with learning disabilities participated in pre-experimental (i.e., introduction, screening test, and Mathematics Interest Inventory sessions) and experimental (i.e., baseline, intervention, post-intervention test with generalization test, and maintenance test) sessions over a 13-week period. Participants were randomly assigned to a priori baseline durations (i.e., 6, 9, 12, 17 days) (Watson & Workman, 1981). During the intervention phase, students received 12 sessions of individual 30-35 minute schema-based intervention for 6 days (i.e., 2 sessions per day). Students participated in guided and independent practice and were encouraged to ask questions as they worked to master the material taught in each intervention session. During the postintervention phase, the four students' accuracy performance was evaluated by six untimed achievement or generalization tests. The achievement and generalization tests contained a total of 10 one-step multiplication and division word problems. All of the students achieved scores greater than a pre-determined criterion level of 70% accuracy on the six consecutive tests. Two weeks after termination of the post intervention phase, each student's accuracy performance on the achievement and generalization tests was examined during the follow-up maintenance phase. Findings revealed that the four students' performance substantially improved after they received the intervention. All four students achieved scores that exceeded the criterion level (70% accuracy) on the achievement tests during the post intervention phase. These findings provide empirical evidence that schema-based intervention is effective in teaching middle school students with learning disabilities to solve multiplication and division word problems. Limitations of the research and implications for practice and future research are discussed.
Book Synopsis Helping Children Learn Mathematics by : National Research Council
Download or read book Helping Children Learn Mathematics written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2002-07-31 with total page 53 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Results from national and international assessments indicate that school children in the United States are not learning mathematics well enough. Many students cannot correctly apply computational algorithms to solve problems. Their understanding and use of decimals and fractions are especially weak. Indeed, helping all children succeed in mathematics is an imperative national goal. However, for our youth to succeed, we need to change how we're teaching this discipline. Helping Children Learn Mathematics provides comprehensive and reliable information that will guide efforts to improve school mathematics from pre-kindergarten through eighth grade. The authors explain the five strands of mathematical proficiency and discuss the major changes that need to be made in mathematics instruction, instructional materials, assessments, teacher education, and the broader educational system and answers some of the frequently asked questions when it comes to mathematics instruction. The book concludes by providing recommended actions for parents and caregivers, teachers, administrators, and policy makers, stressing the importance that everyone work together to ensure a mathematically literate society.
Book Synopsis Becoming the Math Teacher You Wish You'd Had by : Tracy Johnston Zager
Download or read book Becoming the Math Teacher You Wish You'd Had written by Tracy Johnston Zager and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2023-10-10 with total page 393 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Ask mathematicians to describe mathematics and they' ll use words like playful, beautiful, and creative. Pose the same question to students and many will use words like boring, useless, and even humiliating. Becoming the Math Teacher You Wish You' d Had, author Tracy Zager helps teachers close this gap by making math class more like mathematics. Zager has spent years working with highly skilled math teachers in a diverse range of settings and grades and has compiled those' ideas from these vibrant classrooms into' this game-changing book. Inside you' ll find: ' How to Teach Student-Centered Mathematics:' Zager outlines a problem-solving approach to mathematics for elementary and middle school educators looking for new ways to inspire student learning Big Ideas, Practical Application:' This math book contains dozens of practical and accessible teaching techniques that focus on fundamental math concepts, including strategies that simulate connection of big ideas; rich tasks that encourage students to wonder, generalize, hypothesize, and persevere; and routines to teach students how to collaborate Key Topics for Elementary and Middle School Teachers:' Becoming the Math Teacher You Wish You' d Had' offers fresh perspectives on common challenges, from formative assessment to classroom management for elementary and middle school teachers No matter what level of math class you teach, Zager will coach you along chapter by chapter. All teachers can move towards increasingly authentic and delightful mathematics teaching and learning. This important book helps develop instructional techniques that will make the math classes we teach so much better than the math classes we took.
Book Synopsis Effects of Explicit, Strategic Teacher Directed Instruction with IPad Application Practice on the Multiplication Fact Performance of 5th Grade Students with Learning Disabilities by : Min Wook Ok
Download or read book Effects of Explicit, Strategic Teacher Directed Instruction with IPad Application Practice on the Multiplication Fact Performance of 5th Grade Students with Learning Disabilities written by Min Wook Ok and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 518 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: It is critical that students develop computational skills with basic facts to attain more advanced mathematical skills (e.g., algebra and fractions). A limited ability in accuracy and fluency with basic facts by students with learning disabilities (LD) who have Individualized Education Program (IEP) goals in mathematics can hinder their performance with more advanced mathematical skills. Thus, it is imperative to provide effective instruction to help students with LD to improve their basic fact skills. Explicit, strategic instruction has been highly recommended as an effective method for helping students with LD to improve basic fact skills. In addition, recent studies reported tablet computers such as iPads have potential for teaching basic fact skills. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of explicit, strategic teacher-directed instruction with iPad application practice on the multiplication fact performance of 5th grade students with LD. A single-case, multiple probe design across participants was applied for this study. Four 5th grade students with LD who had IEP goals in mathematics received fifteen 1:1 intervention sessions in multiplication facts (×4s and ×8s). Digits correct per minute in daily probes, use of a doubling strategy in strategy usage tests, and perspectives of students toward the intervention were measured. Results showed that all students improved their performance with multiplication fact proficiency; one student achieved the mastery level while the three other students approached mastery. All students also maintained the intervention gains, two weeks following the intervention. Additional findings showed that students increased their use of the doubling strategy to solve facts and were able to answer facts automatically following the intervention. Social validity interviews revealed that the intervention was viewed favorably by all students by their expression of positive perspectives toward using the doubling strategy and an iPad application to practice.
Book Synopsis Math Instruction for Students with Learning Difficulties by : Susan Perry Gurganus
Download or read book Math Instruction for Students with Learning Difficulties written by Susan Perry Gurganus and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This richly updated third edition of Math Instruction for Students with Learning Difficulties presents a research-based approach to mathematics instruction designed to build confidence and competence in preservice and inservice PreK- 12 teachers. Referencing benchmarks of both the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics and Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, this essential text addresses teacher and student attitudes towards mathematics as well as language issues, specific mathematics disabilities, prior experiences, and cognitive and metacognitive factors. Chapters on assessment and instruction precede strands that focus on critical concepts. Replete with suggestions for class activities and field extensions, the new edition features current research across topics and an innovative thread throughout chapters and strands: multi-tiered systems of support as they apply to mathematics instruction.
Book Synopsis Effects of Multimedia Software on Word Problem-solving Performance for Students with Mathematics Difficulties by : You-Jin Seo
Download or read book Effects of Multimedia Software on Word Problem-solving Performance for Students with Mathematics Difficulties written by You-Jin Seo and published by . This book was released on 2008 with total page 526 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) offers the potential to deliver cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies in mathematical word problem-solving for students with mathematics difficulties. However, there is a lack of commercially available CAI programs with cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies for mathematical word problemsolving that pay particular attention to the critical design features for students with mathematics difficulties. Therefore, empirical evidence regarding the effects of CAI program with cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies on the word problem-solving of students with mathematics difficulties has not been found. Considering the imperative need for a CAI program with cognitive and metacognitive strategies for students with mathematics difficulties, an interactive multimedia software, 'Math Explorer, ' was designed, developed, and implemented to teach one-step addition and subtraction word problem-solving skills to students with mathematics difficulties. Math Explorer incorporates: (a) four-step cognitive strategies and corresponding three-step meta-cognitive strategies adapted from the research on cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies, and (b) instruction, interface, and interaction design features of CAI identified as crucial for successful delivery of cognitive and metacognitive strategies for students with mathematics difficulties. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of Math Explorer, which was designed to be a potential tool to deliver cognitive and meta-cognitive strategy instruction in one-step addition and subtraction word problem-solving. Three research questions guided this study: (a) To what extent does the use of Math Explorer affect the accuracy performance of students with mathematics difficulties in grades 2-3 on computer-based tasks with one-step addition and subtraction word problem-solving?, (b) To what extent does the use of Math Explorer generalize to the accuracy performance of students with mathematics difficulties in grades 2-3 on paper/pencil-based tasks with one-step addition and subtraction word problem-solving?, and (c) To what extent does the use of Math Explorer maintain the accuracy performance of students with mathematics difficulties in grades 2-3 on computer- and paper/pencilbased tasks with one-step addition and subtraction word problem-solving? A multiple probe across subjects design was used for the study. Four students with mathematics difficulties participated in the pre-experimental (i.e., introduction; screening test; and computer training I) and experimental (i.e., baseline, computer training II, intervention, and follow-up) sessions over an 18-week period. Each week of the intervention phase, the students received an individual 20- to 30-minute Math Explorer intervention, at most, five days. After each intervention, they took the 10-minute computer- or paper/pencil-based tests developed by the researcher. The intervention phase for each student lasted five to seven weeks. Two weeks after termination of the intervention phase, their accuracy performance on the computer- and paper/pencil-based tests were examined during the follow-up phases. The findings of the study revealed that all four of the students were able to use the cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies to solve the addition and subtraction word problems and improved their accuracy performance on the computer-based tests. Their improved accuracy performance found on the computer-based tests was successfully transferred to the paper/pencil-based tests. About two weeks after termination of the intervention phase, except for one student who had many absences and behavioral problems during the extended intervention phase, the three students successfully maintained their improved accuracy performance during the follow-up phase. Taken together, the findings of the study clearly provide evidence that Math Explorer is an effective method for teaching one-step addition and subtraction word problem-solving skills to students with mathematics difficulties and suggest that the instruction, interface, and interaction design features of CAI program is carefully designed to produce successful mathematical performance of students with mathematics difficulties. Limitations of the research and implications for practice and future research were discussed.
Book Synopsis Differentiation Within Anemone Hepatica L. of Japan by : Hiroshi Hara
Download or read book Differentiation Within Anemone Hepatica L. of Japan written by Hiroshi Hara and published by . This book was released on 1958 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Children's Fractional Knowledge by : Leslie P. Steffe
Download or read book Children's Fractional Knowledge written by Leslie P. Steffe and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2009-12-02 with total page 379 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Children’s Fractional Knowledge elegantly tracks the construction of knowledge, both by children learning new methods of reasoning and by the researchers studying their methods. The book challenges the widely held belief that children’s whole number knowledge is a distraction from their learning of fractions by positing that their fractional learning involves reorganizing—not simply using or building upon—their whole number knowledge. This hypothesis is explained in detail using examples of actual grade-schoolers approaching problems in fractions including the schemes they construct to relate parts to a whole, to produce a fraction as a multiple of a unit part, to transform a fraction into a commensurate fraction, or to combine two fractions multiplicatively or additively. These case studies provide a singular journey into children’s mathematics experience, which often varies greatly from that of adults. Moreover, the authors’ descriptive terms reflect children’s quantitative operations, as opposed to adult mathematical phrases rooted in concepts that do not reflect—and which in the classroom may even suppress—youngsters’ learning experiences. Highlights of the coverage: Toward a formulation of a mathematics of living instead of being Operations that produce numerical counting schemes Case studies: children’s part-whole, partitive, iterative, and other fraction schemes Using the generalized number sequence to produce fraction schemes Redefining school mathematics This fresh perspective is of immediate importance to researchers in mathematics education. With the up-close lens onto mathematical development found in Children’s Fractional Knowledge, readers can work toward creating more effective methods for improving young learners’ quantitative reasoning skills.
Book Synopsis Teacher Quality, Instructional Quality and Student Outcomes by : Trude Nilsen
Download or read book Teacher Quality, Instructional Quality and Student Outcomes written by Trude Nilsen and published by Springer. This book was released on 2016-09-19 with total page 167 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume offers insights from modeling relations between teacher quality, instructional quality and student outcomes in mathematics across countries. The relations explored take the educational context, such as school climate, into account. The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement’s Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) is the only international large-scale study possessing a design framework that enables investigation of relations between teachers, their teaching, and student outcomes in mathematics. TIMSS provides both student achievement data and contextual background data from schools, teachers, students and parents, for over 60 countries. This book makes a major contribution to the field of educational effectiveness, especially teaching effectiveness, where cross-cultural comparisons are scarce. For readers interested in teacher quality, instructional quality, and student achievement and motivation in mathematics, the comparisons across cultures, grades, and time are insightful and thought-provoking. For readers interested in methodology, the advanced analytical methods, combined with application of methods new to educational research, illustrate interesting novel directions in methodology and the secondary analysis of international large-scale assessment (ILSA).
Book Synopsis Math Exchanges by : Kassia Omohundro Wedekind
Download or read book Math Exchanges written by Kassia Omohundro Wedekind and published by Stenhouse Publishers. This book was released on 2011 with total page 216 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Traditionally, small-group math instruction has been used as a format for reaching children who struggle to understand. Math coach Kassia Omohundro Wedekind uses small-group instruction as the centerpiece of her math workshop approach, engaging all students in rigorous "math exchanges." The key characteristics of these mathematical conversations are that they are: 1) short, focused sessions that bring all mathematical minds together, 2) responsive to the needs of the specific group of mathematicians, and 3) designed for meaningful, guided reflection. As in reading and writing workshop, students in math workshop become self-directed and independent while participating in a classroom community of learners. Through the math exchanges, students focus on number sense and the big ideas of mathematics. Teachers guide the conversations with small groups of students, mediating talk and thinking as students share problem-solving strategies, discuss how math works, and move toward more effective and efficient approaches and greater mathematical understanding. Although grounded in theory and research, Math Exchanges: Guiding Young Mathematicians in Small Group Meetings is written for practicing teachers and answers such questions as the following: How can I use a math workshop approach and follow a certain textbook or set of standards? How should I form small groups? How often should I meet with small groups? What should I focus on in small groups? How can I tell if my groups are making progress? What do small-group math exchanges look like, sound like, and feel like?
Book Synopsis Mathematical Proficiency for All Students: Toward a Strategic Research and Development Program in Mathematics Education by : Deborah Loewenberg
Download or read book Mathematical Proficiency for All Students: Toward a Strategic Research and Development Program in Mathematics Education written by Deborah Loewenberg and published by Rand Corporation. This book was released on 2003-04-15 with total page 123 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A clear need exists for substantial improvement in mathematics proficiency in U.S. schools. The RAND Mathematics Study Panel was convened to inform the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Educational Research and Improvement on ways to improve the quality and usability of education research and development (R&D). The panel identified three areas for focused R&D: development of teachers' mathematical knowledge used in teaching; teaching and learning of skills needed for mathematical thinking and problem-solving; and teaching and learning of algebra from kindergarten through the 12th grade.
Book Synopsis Effects of Think-Aloud Protocol on the Mathematical Problem-Solving Skills of Seventh- and Eighth- Grade Students With Learning Disabilities by : Nasa Lesley Cole
Download or read book Effects of Think-Aloud Protocol on the Mathematical Problem-Solving Skills of Seventh- and Eighth- Grade Students With Learning Disabilities written by Nasa Lesley Cole and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a cognitive- and metacognitive-strategy instruction on the mathematical problem-solving performance and metacognitive experience of 22 seventh- and eighth-grade students with learning disabilities. When solving mathematical word problems, students with learning disabilities typically lack self-regulation processes (Larson & Gerber, 2002) tend to respond impulsively, to use trial and error, and fail to evaluate or verify their solutions (Bryant, Bryant, & Hammermill, 2000). This study used the Metacognitive Experience Survey (MES), two sets of three mathematical-word-problem probes of varying complexity levels, and think-aloud protocols to measure intervention effect. The first research question probed the effect of the intervention on the mathematical-problem-solving performance of the participants as measured by their metacognitive verbalizations collected through think-aloud protocols. Qualitative analysis of the transcripts revealed four emerging themes: students with high metacognition were more successful in performing tasks correctly even when their nonproductive metacognitive verbalizations were above 25.0%; students in the high- and average-metacognition categories successfully solved the 3-step probe, whereas students in the low-metacognition category were not successful in solving the 3-step probe; students in the low-metacognition category used less productive metacognitive verbalizations as the complexity level of the probe increased; and students from all the metacognition categories extensively used cognitive- metacognitive strategies compared with preintervention observations. The second research question probed the intervention effect on the mathematical- problem-solving performance of the participants as measured by the change from pre- to postintervention scores on two sets of three mathematical probes. A dependent-samples t test revealed no strong statistically significant relationships. One weak but statistically significant relationship was found for students' performance on the 1-step probe. There was an increase in the means for the 1-step and 3-step probes from pre- to postintervention. For the 2- and 3-stepstep probes, however, the change from pre- to postintervention was not statistically significant. The third research question probed the effect of the strategy instruction on the metacognitive experience of the participants as measured by the MES. A dependent-samples t test results indicated an increase in the participants' metacognitive experience means from pre- to postintervention but the postintervention mean was not statistically significantly different than the preintervention mean. Notwithstanding that statistically significant changes were not realized across the MES and the mathematical-word-problem probes, important insights were obtained from the think-aloud protocols.
Book Synopsis The Cambridge Handbook of Cognition and Education by : John Dunlosky
Download or read book The Cambridge Handbook of Cognition and Education written by John Dunlosky and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2019-02-07 with total page 1130 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This Handbook reviews a wealth of research in cognitive and educational psychology that investigates how to enhance learning and instruction to aid students struggling to learn and to advise teachers on how best to support student learning. The Handbook includes features that inform readers about how to improve instruction and student achievement based on scientific evidence across different domains, including science, mathematics, reading and writing. Each chapter supplies a description of the learning goal, a balanced presentation of the current evidence about the efficacy of various approaches to obtaining that learning goal, and a discussion of important future directions for research in this area. It is the ideal resource for researchers continuing their study of this field or for those only now beginning to explore how to improve student achievement.
Book Synopsis A Fraction Intervention Using Virtual Manipulatives in Synchronous Online Learning for Students with Mathematics Learning Disabilities by : Jiyeon Park (Ph. D. in special education)
Download or read book A Fraction Intervention Using Virtual Manipulatives in Synchronous Online Learning for Students with Mathematics Learning Disabilities written by Jiyeon Park (Ph. D. in special education) and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page 272 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Online learning provides customized instruction with high flexibility and accessibility, but research into the delivery of online interventions for students with disabilities remains scarce. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of fraction intervention that pair virtual manipulatives with instructional lessons featuring explicit instruction in synchronous online learning for fifth grade students with mathematics learning disabilities (MLD). A multiple probe baseline design across subjects was employed for the study. Three fifth-grade students with MLD received explicit instruction in synchronous online learning via video conferencing programs. During the intervention, students received the 15 fraction lessons using virtual manipulatives (VMs) in synchronous online learning environment. The participants’ percentages of correct answers on the researcher-developed probe were measured across baseline, intervention, and maintenance phases. After the intervention, the participants completed a social validity questionnaire which examined their perceptions of the online intervention using VMs. The findings of the study showed that students' performance improved when the intervention was introduced, and that there was a functional relationship between the fraction intervention and students’ accuracy in solving problems on equivalent fractions. Specifically, the average performance levels across all participants increased from the baseline to the intervention phase (by 18.33% to 20%) with high effect sizes (PND of 80%-100%, NAP of 0.94-1.00, and Tau-U of 0.88-1.00). However, the extent of the effects and maintenance varied according to students' participation and perspectives toward online learning
Download or read book Making Sense written by James Hiebert and published by Heinemann Educational Books. This book was released on 1997 with total page 214 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents several key principles for teaching mathematics for understanding that you can use to reflect on your own teaching, make more informed decisions, and develop more effective systems of instruction.
Book Synopsis Schemas in Problem Solving by : Sandra P. Marshall
Download or read book Schemas in Problem Solving written by Sandra P. Marshall and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 1995-06-30 with total page 440 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Schemas in Problem Solving introduces a new approach to the study of learning, instruction, and assessment. Focusing on the area of arithmetic story problems, Marshall shows how instruction can lead to more meaningful learning by emphasizing the ways students acquire and store knowledge in memory. She identifies major knowledge structures called schemas, describes instruction designed around theses structures, and assesses the strengths and weaknesses in the knowledge that the students demonstrate following instruction. To evaluate the success of her approach, Marshall describes traditional experiments and computer simulations of student performance.
