Econometric Analyses On Global Finance And Economic Development

Download Econometric Analyses On Global Finance And Economic Development full books in PDF, epub, and Kindle. Read online Econometric Analyses On Global Finance And Economic Development ebook anywhere anytime directly on your device. Fast Download speed and no annoying ads. We cannot guarantee that every ebooks is available!

Econometric Analyses on Global Finance and Economic Development

Author : Abdul-Maliq, Yekeen Oku
Publisher : IGI Global
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 313 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (693 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Econometric Analyses on Global Finance and Economic Development by : Abdul-Maliq, Yekeen Oku

Download or read book Econometric Analyses on Global Finance and Economic Development written by Abdul-Maliq, Yekeen Oku and published by IGI Global. This book was released on 2024-01-29 with total page 313 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Understanding the complex interplay between economic ideologies, political systems, and international relations is more critical than ever. The legacy of the Cold War still lingers, shaping the global stage in myriad ways. The ideological divide between capitalism and communism, democracy and authoritarianism, has left a lasting mark on our political and economic landscapes. However, as the world continues to evolve, traditional definitions and assumptions about these ideologies have begun to blur, creating a pressing need for fresh perspectives. The book, Econometric Analyses on Global Finance and Economic Development, serves as a beacon of knowledge for scholars, students, and policymakers seeking a deeper understanding of economic history, political economy, and international relations. By meticulously analyzing fifteen countries, the book unveils a remarkable transformation in economic ideologies and their impact on prosperity. From the post-Cold War era to the present day, it provides empirical evidence of how these shifts have led to more resilient and buoyant economies. Targeted towards those interested in the intersection of history, economics, and politics, this book presents an extensive analysis of countries such as China, India, Vietnam, and many others, shedding light on their economic transformations and their path to global prosperity. Whether you are a student, a researcher, or a decision-maker in the fields of economics, international relations, or development finance, this book offers valuable insights into the dynamic forces shaping our world.

Econometric Methods for Analyzing Economic Development

Author : Schaeffer, Peter V.
Publisher : IGI Global
ISBN 13 : 1466643307
Total Pages : 339 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (666 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Econometric Methods for Analyzing Economic Development by : Schaeffer, Peter V.

Download or read book Econometric Methods for Analyzing Economic Development written by Schaeffer, Peter V. and published by IGI Global. This book was released on 2013-07-31 with total page 339 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Exploring and understanding the analysis of economic development is essential as global economies continue to experience extreme fluctuation. Econometrics brings together statistical methods for practical content and economic relations. Econometric Methods for Analyzing Economic Development is a comprehensive collection that focuses on various regions and their economies at a pivotal time when the majority of nations are struggling with stabilizing their economies. Outlining areas such as employment rates, utilization of natural resources, and regional impacts, this collection of research is an excellent tool for scholars, academics, and professionals looking to expand their knowledge on todays turbulent and changing economy.

The Econometric Analysis of Recurrent Events in Macroeconomics and Finance

Author : Don Harding
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 0691167087
Total Pages : 232 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (911 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis The Econometric Analysis of Recurrent Events in Macroeconomics and Finance by : Don Harding

Download or read book The Econometric Analysis of Recurrent Events in Macroeconomics and Finance written by Don Harding and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2016-07-26 with total page 232 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The global financial crisis highlighted the impact on macroeconomic outcomes of recurrent events like business and financial cycles, highs and lows in volatility, and crashes and recessions. At the most basic level, such recurrent events can be summarized using binary indicators showing if the event will occur or not. These indicators are constructed either directly from data or indirectly through models. Because they are constructed, they have different properties than those arising in microeconometrics, and how one is to use them depends a lot on the method of construction. This book presents the econometric methods necessary for the successful modeling of recurrent events, providing valuable insights for policymakers, empirical researchers, and theorists. It explains why it is inherently difficult to forecast the onset of a recession in a way that provides useful guidance for active stabilization policy, with the consequence that policymakers should place more emphasis on making the economy robust to recessions. The book offers a range of econometric tools and techniques that researchers can use to measure recurrent events, summarize their properties, and evaluate how effectively economic and statistical models capture them. These methods also offer insights for developing models that are consistent with observed financial and real cycles. This book is an essential resource for students, academics, and researchers at central banks and institutions such as the International Monetary Fund.

Macroeconomic Analysis and International Finance

Author : Georgios P. Kouretas
Publisher : Emerald Group Publishing
ISBN 13 : 178350756X
Total Pages : 288 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (835 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Macroeconomic Analysis and International Finance by : Georgios P. Kouretas

Download or read book Macroeconomic Analysis and International Finance written by Georgios P. Kouretas and published by Emerald Group Publishing. This book was released on 2014-02-20 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Banking sector transformation, economic growth and inequality and exchange rate arrangements are critical issues whose importance has been highlighted during the recent financial crisis. This volume contains new research on the relationships between economic growth, inequality and the financial sector.

Applied Econometric Analysis: Emerging Research and Opportunities

Author : Sloboda, Brian W.
Publisher : IGI Global
ISBN 13 : 179981095X
Total Pages : 264 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (998 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Applied Econometric Analysis: Emerging Research and Opportunities by : Sloboda, Brian W.

Download or read book Applied Econometric Analysis: Emerging Research and Opportunities written by Sloboda, Brian W. and published by IGI Global. This book was released on 2020-06-01 with total page 264 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Professionals are constantly searching for competitive solutions to help determine current and future economic tendencies. Econometrics uses statistical methods and real-world data to predict and establish specific trends within business and finance. This analytical method sustains limitless potential, but the necessary research for professionals to understand and implement this approach is lacking. Applied Econometric Analysis: Emerging Research and Opportunities explores the theoretical and practical aspects of detailed econometric theories and applications within economics, political science, public policy, business, and finance. Featuring coverage on a broad range of topics such as cointegration, machine learning, and time series analysis, this book is ideally designed for economists, policymakers, financial analysts, marketers, researchers, academicians, and graduate students seeking research on the various techniques of econometric concepts.

Flow of Funds Analysis

Author : Nan Zhang
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 981157720X
Total Pages : 423 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (115 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Flow of Funds Analysis by : Nan Zhang

Download or read book Flow of Funds Analysis written by Nan Zhang and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-08-31 with total page 423 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book discusses the theory, methods, and applications of flow of funds analysis. The book integrates the basic principles of economic statistics, financial accounts, international finance, econometric models, and financial network analysis, providing a systematic and comprehensive introduction to the interconnection between these research fields. It thus provides the reader with the intellectual groundwork indispensable for understanding the workings and interactions of today’s globalized financial markets. The main focus of the book is how to observe the flow of funds in macroeconomics, how to measure the global flow of funds (GFF), and how to use GFF data to carry out an analysis. Based on the statistical framework for measuring GFF under the System of National Accounts, the book identifies the systematic relationship of financial linkages among economic sectors and with the rest of the world while integrating data sources that include stock data, geographically broken down by country–region, and selected financial instruments. It sets out the GFF concept and constructs a GFF matrix (metadata) on a from-whom-to-whom basis within a country-by-country pattern. Lastly, an established GFF matrix table is used to conduct an empirical study including an econometric model and financial network analysis.

Economic and Financial Modelling with EViews

Author : Abdulkader Aljandali
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319929852
Total Pages : 284 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (199 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Economic and Financial Modelling with EViews by : Abdulkader Aljandali

Download or read book Economic and Financial Modelling with EViews written by Abdulkader Aljandali and published by Springer. This book was released on 2018-10-22 with total page 284 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This practical guide in Eviews is aimed at practitioners and students in business, economics, econometrics, and finance. It uses a step-by-step approach to equip readers with a toolkit that enables them to make the most of this widely used econometric analysis software. Statistical and econometrics concepts are explained visually with examples, problems, and solutions. Developed by economists, the Eviews statistical software package is used most commonly for time-series oriented econometric analysis. It allows users to quickly develop statistical relations from data and then use those relations to forecast future values of the data. The package provides convenient ways to enter or upload data series, create new series from existing ones, display and print series, carry out statistical analyses of relationships among series, and manipulate results and output. This highly hands-on resource includes more than 200 illustrative graphs and tables and tutorials throughout. Abdulkader Aljandali is Senior Lecturer at Coventry University in London. He is currently leading the Stochastic Finance Module taught as part of the Global Financial Trading MSc. His previously published work includes Exchange Rate Volatility in Emerging Markers, Quantitative Analysis, Multivariate Methods & Forecasting with IBM SPSS Statistics and Multivariate Methods and Forecasting with IBM® SPSS® Statistics. Dr Aljandali is an established member of the British Accounting and Finance Association and the Higher Education Academy. Motasam Tatahi is a specialist in the areas of Macroeconomics, Financial Economics, and Financial Econometrics at the European Business School, Regent’s University London, where he serves as Principal Lecturer and Dissertation Coordinator for the MSc in Global Banking and Finance at The European Business School-London.

Econometric Methods for Analyzing Economic Development

Author : Eugène Kouassi
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781466643314
Total Pages : 319 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (433 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Econometric Methods for Analyzing Economic Development by : Eugène Kouassi

Download or read book Econometric Methods for Analyzing Economic Development written by Eugène Kouassi and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 319 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "This book is a comprehensive collection that focuses on various regions and their economies at a pivotal time in our global economy when the majority of nations continue to struggle with stabilizing their economies"--Provided by publisher.

Recent Econometric Techniques for Macroeconomic and Financial Data

Author : Gilles Dufrénot
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030542521
Total Pages : 387 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (35 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Recent Econometric Techniques for Macroeconomic and Financial Data by : Gilles Dufrénot

Download or read book Recent Econometric Techniques for Macroeconomic and Financial Data written by Gilles Dufrénot and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-11-21 with total page 387 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book provides a comprehensive overview of the latest econometric methods for studying the dynamics of macroeconomic and financial time series. It examines alternative methodological approaches and concepts, including quantile spectra and co-spectra, and explores topics such as non-linear and non-stationary behavior, stochastic volatility models, and the econometrics of commodity markets and globalization. Furthermore, it demonstrates the application of recent techniques in various fields: in the frequency domain, in the analysis of persistent dynamics, in the estimation of state space models and new classes of volatility models. The book is divided into two parts: The first part applies econometrics to the field of macroeconomics, discussing trend/cycle decomposition, growth analysis, monetary policy and international trade. The second part applies econometrics to a wide range of topics in financial economics, including price dynamics in equity, commodity and foreign exchange markets and portfolio analysis. The book is essential reading for scholars, students, and practitioners in government and financial institutions interested in applying recent econometric time series methods to financial and economic data.

Researches in Economics, Econometrics & Finance

Author : Hilal Yıldız
Publisher : IJOPEC PUBLICATION
ISBN 13 : 1912503867
Total Pages : 303 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (125 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Researches in Economics, Econometrics & Finance by : Hilal Yıldız

Download or read book Researches in Economics, Econometrics & Finance written by Hilal Yıldız and published by IJOPEC PUBLICATION. This book was released on 2019-12-18 with total page 303 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As the outcome of the tenth international congress (Current Debates in Social Sciences), the papers in this volume cover a wide range of topics related to the main theme of the conference, titled “Current Debates in Social Sciences”, and basically focus on economics, finance and econometrics. Even though most of the papers deal with the empirical analysis on economics and finance, there are also studies on econometrics analysis. In this context, the articles in the book draw attention to the different aspects of economics, finance and econometrics such as game theory, Fin- Tech, financial deepening, financial literacy, debt level of credit card of younger generation and case studies, the relationship between Turkey technology index and other World technology index, carbon emission rate and economic growth, the effects of capital inflows on economic growth, work engagement, loneliness at work and stress, measure and compare the performance of Type-A mutual funds in Turkey. We believe that these studies would contribute to the development of debates in social sciences and encourage interdisciplinary approaches.

Econometrics for Financial Applications

Author : Ly H. Anh
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319731505
Total Pages : 1081 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (197 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Econometrics for Financial Applications by : Ly H. Anh

Download or read book Econometrics for Financial Applications written by Ly H. Anh and published by Springer. This book was released on 2017-12-18 with total page 1081 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book addresses both theoretical developments in and practical applications of econometric techniques to finance-related problems. It includes selected edited outcomes of the International Econometric Conference of Vietnam (ECONVN2018), held at Banking University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam on January 15-16, 2018. Econometrics is a branch of economics that uses mathematical (especially statistical) methods to analyze economic systems, to forecast economic and financial dynamics, and to develop strategies for achieving desirable economic performance. An extremely important part of economics is finances: a financial crisis can bring the whole economy to a standstill and, vice versa, a smart financial policy can dramatically boost economic development. It is therefore crucial to be able to apply mathematical techniques of econometrics to financial problems. Such applications are a growing field, with many interesting results – and an even larger number of challenges and open problems.

Financial Structures and Economic Outcomes

Author : Mr.Tom Gole
Publisher : International Monetary Fund
ISBN 13 : 1484394763
Total Pages : 29 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (843 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Financial Structures and Economic Outcomes by : Mr.Tom Gole

Download or read book Financial Structures and Economic Outcomes written by Mr.Tom Gole and published by International Monetary Fund. This book was released on 2013-05-22 with total page 29 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This paper investigates the potential relationships between financial structures and economic outcomes. The empirical results that withstand a battery of methods suggest that some financial intermediation structures are likely to be more closely related to positive economic outcomes than others. For instance, protective financial buffers within institutions have been associated with better economic performance, and a domestic financial system that is dominated by some types of nontraditional bank intermediation or that has a high proportion of foreign banks has in some cases been associated with adverse economic outcomes, especially during the financial crisis. The results also suggest that there may be trade-offs between beneficial effects on growth and stability of some financial structures. For example, the positive association of financial buffers with growth can diminish above a certain, relatively high, threshold—a too-safe system may limit the available funds for credit and hence growth.

Econometric Analyses of International Housing Markets

Author : Rita Yi Man Li
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 131758791X
Total Pages : 198 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (175 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Econometric Analyses of International Housing Markets by : Rita Yi Man Li

Download or read book Econometric Analyses of International Housing Markets written by Rita Yi Man Li and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2016-03-31 with total page 198 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book explores how econometric modelling can be used to provide valuable insight into international housing markets. Initially describing the role of econometrics modelling in real estate market research and how it has developed in recent years, the book goes on to compare and contrast the impact of various macroeconomic factors on developed and developing housing markets. Explaining the similarities and differences in the impact of financial crises on housing markets around the world, the author's econometric analysis of housing markets across the world provides a broad and nuanced perspective on the impact of both international financial markets and local macro economy on housing markets. With discussion of countries such as China, Germany, UK, US and South Africa, the lessons learned will be of interest to scholars of Real Estate economics around the world.

The Econometrics of Financial Markets

Author : John Y. Campbell
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 1400830214
Total Pages : 630 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (8 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis The Econometrics of Financial Markets by : John Y. Campbell

Download or read book The Econometrics of Financial Markets written by John Y. Campbell and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2012-06-28 with total page 630 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The past twenty years have seen an extraordinary growth in the use of quantitative methods in financial markets. Finance professionals now routinely use sophisticated statistical techniques in portfolio management, proprietary trading, risk management, financial consulting, and securities regulation. This graduate-level textbook is intended for PhD students, advanced MBA students, and industry professionals interested in the econometrics of financial modeling. The book covers the entire spectrum of empirical finance, including: the predictability of asset returns, tests of the Random Walk Hypothesis, the microstructure of securities markets, event analysis, the Capital Asset Pricing Model and the Arbitrage Pricing Theory, the term structure of interest rates, dynamic models of economic equilibrium, and nonlinear financial models such as ARCH, neural networks, statistical fractals, and chaos theory. Each chapter develops statistical techniques within the context of a particular financial application. This exciting new text contains a unique and accessible combination of theory and practice, bringing state-of-the-art statistical techniques to the forefront of financial applications. Each chapter also includes a discussion of recent empirical evidence, for example, the rejection of the Random Walk Hypothesis, as well as problems designed to help readers incorporate what they have read into their own applications.

An Empirical Reassessment of the Relationship Between Finance and Growth

Author : Mr.Giovanni Favara
Publisher : International Monetary Fund
ISBN 13 : 1451854633
Total Pages : 48 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (518 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis An Empirical Reassessment of the Relationship Between Finance and Growth by : Mr.Giovanni Favara

Download or read book An Empirical Reassessment of the Relationship Between Finance and Growth written by Mr.Giovanni Favara and published by International Monetary Fund. This book was released on 2003-06-01 with total page 48 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This paper reexamines the empirical relationship between financial development and economic growth. It presents evidence based on cross-section and panel data using an updated dataset, a variety of econometric methods, and two standard measures of financial development: the level of liquid liabilities of the banking system and the amount of credit issued to the private sector by banks and other financial institutions. The paper identifies two sets of findings. First, in contrast with the recent evidence of Levine, Loayza, and Beck (2001), cross-section and panel-data-instrumental-variables regressions reveal that the relationship between financial development and economic growth is, at best, weak. Second, there is evidence of nonlinearities in the data, suggesting that finance matters for growth only at intermediate levels of financial development. Moreover, using a procedure appropriately designed to estimate long-run relationships in a panel with heterogeneous slope coefficients, there is no clear indication that finance spurs economic growth. Instead, for some specifications, the relationship is, puzzlingly, negative.

Econometric Methods and Their Applications in Finance, Macro and Related Fields

Author : Kaddour Hadri
Publisher : World Scientific
ISBN 13 : 9814513474
Total Pages : 616 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (145 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Econometric Methods and Their Applications in Finance, Macro and Related Fields by : Kaddour Hadri

Download or read book Econometric Methods and Their Applications in Finance, Macro and Related Fields written by Kaddour Hadri and published by World Scientific. This book was released on 2014 with total page 616 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The volume aims at providing an outlet for some of the best papers presented at the 15th Annual Conference of the African Econometric Society, which is one of the OC chaptersOCO of the International Econometric Society. Many of these papers represent the state of the art in financial econometrics and applied econometric modeling, and some also provide useful simulations that shed light on the models'' ability to generate meaningful scenarios for forecasting and policy analysis. Contents: Financial Econometrics and International Finance: Modeling Interest Rates Using Reducible Stochastic Differential Equations: A Copula-Based Multivariate Approach (Ruijun Bu, Ludovic Giet, Kaddour Hadri and Michel Lubrano); Financial Risk Management Using Asymmetric Heavy-Tailed Distribution and Nonlinear Dependence Structures of Asset Returns Under Discontinuous Dynamics (Alaa El-Shazly); Modeling Time-Varying Dependence in the Term Structure of Interest Rates (Diaa Noureldin); Nonlinear Filtering and Market Implied Rating for a Jump-Diffusion Structural Model of Credit Risk (Alaa El-Shazly); Time-Varying Optimal Weights for International Asset Allocation in African and South Asian Markets (Dalia El-Edel); Econometric Theory and Methods: Econometric Methods for Ordered Responses: Some Recent Developments (Franco Peracchi); Which Quantile Is the Most Informative? Maximum Likelihood, Maximum Entropy and Quantile Regression (Anil K Bera, Antonio F Galvao Jr., Gabriel V Montes-Rojas, Sung Y Park); The Experimetrics of Fairness (Anna Conte and Peter Moffatt); Uniform in Bandwidth Tests of Specification for Conditional Moment Restrictions Models (Pascal Lavergne and Pierre Nguimkeu); Joint LM Test for Homoscedasticity in a Two Way Error Components Model (Eugene Kouassi, Joel Sango, J M BossonBrou and Kern O Kymn); An Approximation to the Distribution of the Pooled Estimator When the Time Series Equation Is One of a Complete System (Ghazal Amer and William Mikhail); Monetary, Labor, Environmental and Other Econometric Applications: Monetary Policy and the Role of the Exchange Rate in Egypt (Tarek Morsi and Mai El-Mossallamy); International Migration, Remittances and Household Poverty Status in Egypt (Rania Roushdy, Ragui Assaad and Ali Rashed); Determinants of Job Quality and Wages of the Working Poor: Evidence From 1998OCo2006 Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey (Mona Said); A Contract-Theoretic Model of Conservation Agreements (Heidi Gjertsen, Theodore Groves, David A Miller, Eduard Niesten, Dale Squires and Joel Watson); Household Environment and Child Health in Egypt (Mahmoud Hailat and Franco Peracchi); Modeling the Relationship between Natural Resource Abundance, Economic Growth, and the Environment: A Cross-Country Study (Hala Abou-Ali and Yasmine M Abdelfattah); Global Cement Industry: Competitive and Institutional Frameworks (Tarek H Selim and Ahmed S Salem); On the Occurrence of Ponzi Schemes in Presence of Credit Restrictions Penalizing Default (Abdelkrim Seghir); Is Targeted Advertising Always Beneficial? (Nada Ben Elhadj-Ben Brahim, Rim Lahmandi-Ayed and Didier Laussel). Readership: Graduate students and researchers in the fields of econometrics, economic theory, applied econometrics.

Finance, Research, Education and Growth

Author : L. Paganetto
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 1403920230
Total Pages : 199 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (39 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Finance, Research, Education and Growth by : L. Paganetto

Download or read book Finance, Research, Education and Growth written by L. Paganetto and published by Springer. This book was released on 2003-01-31 with total page 199 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A crucial issue in the era of globalisation and internationalization, is whether the relationship between investment and finance is beneficial to growth and development. Received wisdom is that Research and Development is essential not only for maintaining productivity, but also for competing in the marketplace. Similar questions have been raised about education and its rate of 'social return; is education necessary for improving the skill of the workforce, or does it serve primarily to facilitate the adoption of these new technologies? This book brings together a case of leading international scholars to analyze the importance of education, research and human capital and the impact of financial systems on growth and development.