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Development Of A Compositional Reservoir Simulator For Asphaltene Precipitation Based On A Thermodynamically Consistent Model
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Book Synopsis Development of a Compositional Reservoir Simulator for Asphaltene Precipitation Based on a Thermodynamically Consistent Model by : Karin G Gonzalez Abad
Download or read book Development of a Compositional Reservoir Simulator for Asphaltene Precipitation Based on a Thermodynamically Consistent Model written by Karin G Gonzalez Abad and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A rigorous three-phase asphaltene precipitation model was implemented into a compositional reservoir simulator to represent and estimate the reduction of porosity and permeability responsible for productivity impairment. Previous modeling techniques were computationally inefficient, showed thermodynamic inconsistencies, or required special laboratory experiments to characterize the fluid. The approach developed in this study uses a cubic equation of state to solve for vapor/liquid/liquid equilibrium (VLLE), where asphaltene is the denser liquid phase. Precipitation from the liquid mixture occurs as its solubility is reduced either by changes in pressure (natural depletion), or composition (i.e. mixing resulting from gas injection). The dynamic relationship between phase composition, pressure, and porosity/permeability is modeled with a finite differences reservoir simulator and solved using an implicit-pressure, explicit-saturations and explicit-compositions (IMPESC) direct sequential method. The robustness of this model is validated by the ability to reproduce experimental asphaltene precipitation data while predicting the expected phase behavior envelope and response to key thermodynamic variables (i.e. type of components and composition, pressure and, temperature). The three-phase VLLE flash provides superior thermodynamic predictions compared to existing commercial techniques. Computer performance analysis showed that the model has a comparable cost to existing asphaltene precipitation models, taking only 1.1 more time to calculate but requiring fewer tunable parameters. The VLLE flash was in average 4.47 times slower compared to a conventional two-phase vapor/liquid flash. This model has the speed of a flash calculation while maintaining thermodynamic consistency, enabling efficient optimization of reservoir development strategies to mitigate the detrimental effects of asphaltene precipitation on productivity. The electronic version of this dissertation is accessible from http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/151068
Book Synopsis Production Performance Modeling Through Integration of Reservoir and Production Network with Asphaltene Deposition by : Ernesto Valbuena Olivares
Download or read book Production Performance Modeling Through Integration of Reservoir and Production Network with Asphaltene Deposition written by Ernesto Valbuena Olivares and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page 176 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This study proposes the development of a new integrated reservoir-network compositional simulator with asphaltene modeling in production pipelines. Reservoir and network simulators are developed with a fully-implicit formulation, allowing stand-alone runs to analyze specific areas of interest for reservoir and production engineers. The same simulation platform allows to perform tightly-coupled runs to assess mutual interaction between subsurface and surface components. Fluid phase behavior is modeled through phase equilibria calculations, using Peng-Robinson equation of state with volume translation. Rigorous vapor/liquid/liquid-dense equilibria calculations are performed to model asphaltene precipitation in network pipelines using a thermodynamically consistent sequential approach. Asphaltene deposition in the internal pipe walls is estimated through a mechanistic solid transport model. Compositional delumping is performed from reservoir to network fluid descriptions to improve fluid characterization for asphaltene modeling in pipelines. The proposed combination of tight coupling with fully-implicit formulation for oil, gas, water flow in reservoir and network, and sequential approach for solid precipitation and deposition in the pipeline system, provides a robust and flexible methodology for additional applications of solid deposition, e.g. hydrates and waxes. This approach also enables evaluation of inhibitor injection and artificial gas lift installation on asphaltene deposition and production performance. Integrated reservoir-network modeling provides more representative reservoir performance forecasts than conventional stand-alone methods, as it allows to simulate complex interactions between reservoir and surface facilities. Solids precipitation and deposition in networks have a negative impact on production rates, pressure management, and field operations. Flow assurance techniques based on adequate estimates of potentially blocking phases (hydrates, waxes, asphaltenes) are crucial to achieve good production performance. The modeling approach developed in this research allows to forecast asphaltene precipitation and accumulation in pipelines under multiple production conditions, including pressure and temperature gradients, fluid composition, production rates, gas lift, and inhibitor injection. The electronic version of this dissertation is accessible from http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/155139
Book Synopsis Development of a Fully Implicit, Parallel, Equation-of-state Compositional Simulator to Model Asphaltene Precipitation in Petroleum Reservoirs by : Waleed Fazelipour
Download or read book Development of a Fully Implicit, Parallel, Equation-of-state Compositional Simulator to Model Asphaltene Precipitation in Petroleum Reservoirs written by Waleed Fazelipour and published by . This book was released on 2007 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Development of a Non-isothermal Compositional Reservoir Simulator to Model Asphaltene Precipitation, Flocculation, and Deposition and Remediation by : Hamed Darabi
Download or read book Development of a Non-isothermal Compositional Reservoir Simulator to Model Asphaltene Precipitation, Flocculation, and Deposition and Remediation written by Hamed Darabi and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 546 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Asphaltene precipitation, flocculation, and deposition in the reservoir and producing wells cause serious damages to the production equipment and possible failure to develop the reservoirs. From the field production prospective, predicting asphaltene precipitation, flocculation, and deposition in the reservoir and wellbore may avoid high expenditures associated with the reservoir remediation, well intervention techniques, and field production interruption. Since asphaltene precipitation, flocculation, and deposition strongly depend on the pressure, temperature, and composition variations (e.g. phase instability due to CO2 injection), it is important to have a model that can track the asphaltene behavior during the entire production system from the injection well to the production well, which is absent in the literature. Due to economic concerns for asphaltene related problems, companies spend a lot of money to design their own asphaltene inhibition and remediation procedures. However, due to the complexity and the lack of knowledge on the asphaltene problems, these asphaltene inhibition and remediation programs are not always successful. Near-wellbore asphaltene inhibition and remediation techniques can be divided into two categories: changing operating conditions, and chemical treatment of the reservoir. Although, the field applications of these procedures are discussed in the literature, a dynamic model that can handle asphaltene inhibition and remediation in the reservoir is missing. In this dissertation, a comprehensive non-isothermal compositional reservoir simulator with the capability of modeling near-wellbore asphaltene inhibition and remediation is developed to address the effect of asphaltene deposition on the reservoir performance. This simulator has many additional features compared to the available asphaltene reservoir simulators. We are able to model asphaltene behavior during primary, secondary, and EOR stages. A new approach is presented to model asphaltene precipitation and flocculation. Adsorption, entrainment, and pore-throat plugging are considered as the main mechanisms of the asphaltene deposition. Moreover, we consider porosity, absolute permeability, and oil viscosity reductions due to asphaltene. It is well known that the asphaltene deposition on the rock surface changes the wettability of the rock towards oil-wet condition. Although many experiments in the literature have been conducted to understand the physics underlying wettability alteration due to asphaltene deposition, a comprehensive mathematical model describing this phenomenon is absent. Based on the available experimental data, a wettability alteration model due to asphaltene deposition is proposed and implemented into the simulator. Furthermore, the reservoir simulator is coupled to a wellbore simulator to model asphaltene deposition in the entire production system, from the injection well to the production well. The coupled reservoir/wellbore model can be used to track asphaltene deposition, to diagnose the potential of asphaltene problems in the wellbore and reservoir, and to find the optimum operating conditions of the well that minimizes asphaltene problems. In addition, the simulator is capable of modeling near-wellbore asphaltene remediation using chemical treatment. Based on the mechanisms of the asphaltene-dispersant interactions, a dynamic modeling approach for the near-wellbore asphaltene chemical treatments is proposed and implemented in the simulator. Using the dynamic asphaltene remediation model, we can optimize the asphaltene treatment plan to reduce asphaltene related problems in a field. The results of our simulations show that asphaltene precipitation, flocculation, and deposition in the reservoir and wellbore are dynamic processes. Many parameters, such as oil velocity, wettability alteration, pressure, temperature, and composition variations influence the trend of these processes. In the simulation test cases, we observe that asphaltene precipitation, flocculation, and deposition can occur in primary production, secondary production, or EOR stages. In addition, our results show that the wettability alteration has the major effect on the performance of the reservoir, comparing to the permeability reduction. During CO2 flooding, asphaltene precipitation occurs mostly at the front, and asphaltene deposition is at its maximum close to the reservoir boundaries where the front velocity is at its minimum. In addition, the results of the coupled reservoir/wellbore simulator show that the behavior of asphaltene in the wellbore and reservoir are fully coupled with each other. Therefore, a standalone reservoir or wellbore simulator is not able to predict the asphaltene behavior properly in the entire system. Finally, we show that the efficiency of an asphaltene chemical treatment plan depends on the type of dispersant, amount of dispersant, soaking time, number of treatment jobs, and the time period between two treatment jobs.
Book Synopsis CO2 Storage Coupled with Enhanced Oil Recovery by : Kun Sang Lee
Download or read book CO2 Storage Coupled with Enhanced Oil Recovery written by Kun Sang Lee and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-03-09 with total page 114 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides a comprehensive and detailed description of the various mechanisms of the CCS–EOR process. Whereas previous texts have primarily focused on carbon capture and storage (CCS) and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) separately, this book provides a general overview of both technologies when used together. Coupled CCS–EOR technology has become increasingly important, as it overcomes the respective shortcomings of the two technologies. The book presents an integrated numerical model including the hysteresis effect, solubility trapping, miscibility, and formation damage by asphaltene deposition. The experimental and model-based evaluation of fluid properties is also discussed. The book concludes by discussing the latest research into CO2 storage coupled with EOR, most notably performance control by including additives in CO2 injection, and CO2 injection into shale reservoirs. Ideally suited for graduate students and researchers in the fields of carbon capture, utilisation, and storage, the book shares essential insights into maximising the efficiency of CCS and EOR alike.
Book Synopsis Compositional Grading in Oil and Gas Reservoirs by : Rogerio Oliveira Esposito
Download or read book Compositional Grading in Oil and Gas Reservoirs written by Rogerio Oliveira Esposito and published by Gulf Professional Publishing. This book was released on 2017-05-26 with total page 363 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Compositional Grading in Oil and Gas Reservoirs offers instruction, examples, and case studies on how to answer the challenges of modeling a compositional gradient subject. Starting with the basics on PVT analysis, applied thermodynamics, and full derivations of irreversible thermodynamic-based equations, this critical reference explains gravity-modified equations to be applied to reservoirs, enabling engineers to obtain fluid composition at any point of the reservoir from measured data to create a stronger model calibration. Once model-parameters are re-estimated, new sensibility can be acquired for more accurate modeling of composition, aiding engineers with stronger production curves, reserve estimations, and design of future development strategies. Multiple examples and case studies are included to show the application of the theory from very simple to more complex systems, such as actual reservoirs influenced by thermal diffusion and gravity simultaneously. Other example include a layer for which asphaltene precipitation takes place in the reservoir and three –phase flash algorithms for liquid-liquid-vapor equilibrium calculations, detailing the techniques necessary to ensure convergence. The book combines practical studies with the importance in modeling more complex phenomena, filling a gap for current and upcoming reservoir engineers to expand on solutions and make sense of their reservoir’s output results. Presents a deeper level of detail on the heterogeneity composition and thermo-physical properties of petroleum fluids in the reservoir Includes tactics on how to Increase reliability of reservoir simulation initialization, with practice examples at the end of each chapter Helps readers make sense of compositional grading, with coverage on both theory and application that fulfill a gap in research on reservoir simulation
Book Synopsis Thermodynamic Modeling for Organic Solid Precipitation by :
Download or read book Thermodynamic Modeling for Organic Solid Precipitation written by and published by . This book was released on 1992 with total page 29 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A generalized predictive model which is based on thermodynamic principle for solid-liquid phase equilibrium has been developed for organic solid precipitation. The model takes into account the effects of temperature, composition, and activity coefficient on the solubility of wax and asphaltenes in organic solutions. The solid-liquid equilibrium K-value is expressed as a function of the heat of melting, melting point temperature, solubility parameter, and the molar volume of each component in the solution. All these parameters have been correlated with molecular weight. Thus, the model can be applied to crude oil systems. The model has been tested with experimental data for wax formation and asphaltene precipitation. The predicted wax appearance temperature is very close to the measured temperature. The model not only can match the measured asphaltene solubility data but also can be used to predict the solubility of asphaltene in organic solvents or crude oils. The model assumes that asphaltenes are dissolved in oil in a true liquid state, not in colloidal suspension, and the precipitation-dissolution process is reversible by changing thermodynamic conditions. The model is thermodynamically consistent and has no ambiguous assumptions.
Book Synopsis Asphaltene Deposition by : Francisco M. Vargas
Download or read book Asphaltene Deposition written by Francisco M. Vargas and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2018-05-16 with total page 360 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As global consumption of fossil fuels such as oil increases, previously abundant sources have become depleted or plagued with obstructions. Asphaltene deposition is one of such obstructions which can significantly decrease the rate of oil production. This book offers concise yet thorough coverage of the complex problem of asphaltene precipitation and deposition in oil production. It covers fundamentals of chemistry, stabilization theories and mechanistic approaches of asphaltene behavior at high temperature and pressure. Asphaltene Deposition: Fundamentals, Prediction, Prevention, and Remediation explains techniques for experimental determination of asphaltene precipitation and deposition and different modeling tools available to forecast the occurrence and magnitude of asphaltene deposition in a given oil field. It discusses strategies for mitigation of asphaltene deposition using chemical inhibition and corresponding challenges, best practices for asphaltene remediation, current research, and case studies.
Book Synopsis Thermodynamic Modeling of Asphaltene Precipitation by : Mahdi Zeinali Hasanvand
Download or read book Thermodynamic Modeling of Asphaltene Precipitation written by Mahdi Zeinali Hasanvand and published by LAP Lambert Academic Publishing. This book was released on 2012-04 with total page 72 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Asphaltene precipitation is a sophisticated issue in the upstream oil industry, worldwide, and has detrimental effect on a verity of production processes in oilfields; it damages the properties of the reservoir and causes an unfavorable and significant decrease in oil production. Many oil reservoirs encounter asphaltene precipitation as a major problem during natural production. It is desirable to predict and investigate the precipitation behavior of asphaltene in different pressure temperature conditions. In spite of numerous studies to predict asphaltene behavior, the effect of temperature on asphaltene precipitation during pressure depletion at reservoir conditions is still obscure in the literature. In this work the PVT data as well as experimental data of asphaltene precipitation at reservoir conditions of two Iranian heavy and light oil samples are used, and the asphaltene precipitation and deposition envelops (APE and ADE) of the oils are developed.
Book Synopsis Development and Application of a Parallel Compositional Reservoir Simulator by : Mojtaba Ghasemi Doroh
Download or read book Development and Application of a Parallel Compositional Reservoir Simulator written by Mojtaba Ghasemi Doroh and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page 324 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Simulation of large-scale and complex reservoirs requires fine and detailed gridding, which involves a significant amount of memory and is computationally expensive. Nowadays, clusters of PCs and high-performance computing (HPC) centers are widely available. These systems allow parallel processing, which helps large-scale simulations run faster and more efficient. In this research project, we developed a parallel version of The University of Texas Compositional Simulator (UTCOMP). The parallel UTCOMP is capable of running on both shared and distributed memory parallel computers. This parallelization included all physical features of the original code, such as higher-order finite difference, physical dispersion, and asphaltene precipitation. The parallelization was verified for several case studies using multiple processors. The parallel simulator produces outputs required for visualizing simulation results using the S3graph visualization software. The efficiency of the parallel simulator was assessed in terms of speedup using various numbers of processors. Subsequently, we improved the coding and implementation in the simulator in order to minimize the communications between the processors to improve the parallel efficiency to carry out the simulations. To improve the efficiency of the linear solver in the simulator, we implemented three well-known high-performance parallel solver packages (SAMG, Hypre, and PETSc) in the parallel simulator. Then, the performances of the solver packages were improved in terms of the input parameters for solving large-scale reservoir simulation problems. The developed parallel simulator has expanded the capability of the original code for simulating large-scale reservoir simulation case studies. In other words, with sufficient number of processors, a field-scale simulation with a million grid cells can be performed in few hours. Several case studies are presented to show the performance of the parallel simulator.
Book Synopsis Thermodynamics in Compositional Reservoir Simulation by : Peng Wang
Download or read book Thermodynamics in Compositional Reservoir Simulation written by Peng Wang and published by . This book was released on 1993 with total page 251 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Development and Application of a Coupled Geomechanics Model for a Parallel Compositional Reservoir Simulator by : Feng Pan (Ph. D.)
Download or read book Development and Application of a Coupled Geomechanics Model for a Parallel Compositional Reservoir Simulator written by Feng Pan (Ph. D.) and published by . This book was released on 2009 with total page 652 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: For a stress-sensitive or stress-dependent reservoir, the interactions between its seepage field and in situ stress field are complex and affect hydrocarbon recovery. A coupled geomechanics and fluid-flow model can capture these relations between the fluid and solid, thereby presenting more precise history matchings and predictions for better well planning and reservoir management decisions. A traditional reservoir simulator cannot adequately or fully represent the ongoing coupled fluid-solid interactions during the production because of using the simplified update-formulation for porosity and the static absolute permeability during simulations. Many researchers have studied multiphase fluid-flow models coupled with geomechanics models during the past fifteen years. The purpose of this research is to develop a coupled geomechanics and compositional model and apply it to problems in the oil recovery processes. An equation of state compositional simulator called the General Purpose Adaptive Simulator (GPAS) is developed at The University of Texas at Austin and uses finite difference / finite control volume methods for the solution of its governing partial differential equations (PDEs). GPAS was coupled with a geomechanics model developed in this research, which uses a finite element method for discretization of the associated PDEs. Both the iteratively coupled solution procedure and the fully coupled solution procedure were implemented to couple the geomechanics and reservoir simulation modules in this work. Parallelization, testing, and verification for the coupled model were performed on parallel clusters of high-performance workstations. MPI was used for the data exchange in the iteratively coupled procedure. Different constitutive models were coded into GPAS to describe complicated behaviors of linear or nonlinear deformation in the geomechanics model. In addition, the geomechanics module was coupled with the dual porosity model in GPAS to simulate naturally fractured reservoirs. The developed coupled reservoir and geomechanics simulator was verified using analytical solutions. Various reservoir simulation case studies were carried out using the coupled geomechanics and GPAS modules.
Book Synopsis Development and Application of a Coupled Geomechanics Model for a Parallel Compositional Reservoir Simulator by : Feng Pan
Download or read book Development and Application of a Coupled Geomechanics Model for a Parallel Compositional Reservoir Simulator written by Feng Pan and published by . This book was released on 2009 with total page 652 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: For a stress-sensitive or stress-dependent reservoir, the interactions between its seepage field and in situ stress field are complex and affect hydrocarbon recovery. A coupled geomechanics and fluid-flow model can capture these relations between the fluid and solid, thereby presenting more precise history matchings and predictions for better well planning and reservoir management decisions. A traditional reservoir simulator cannot adequately or fully represent the ongoing coupled fluid-solid interactions during the production because of using the simplified update-formulation for porosity and the static absolute permeability during simulations. Many researchers have studied multiphase fluid-flow models coupled with geomechanics models during the past fifteen years. The purpose of this research is to develop a coupled geomechanics and compositional model and apply it to problems in the oil recovery processes. An equation of state compositional simulator called the General Purpose Adaptive Simulator (GPAS) is developed at The University of Texas at Austin and uses finite difference / finite control volume methods for the solution of its governing partial differential equations (PDEs). GPAS was coupled with a geomechanics model developed in this research, which uses a finite element method for discretization of the associated PDEs. Both the iteratively coupled solution procedure and the fully coupled solution procedure were implemented to couple the geomechanics and reservoir simulation modules in this work. Parallelization, testing, and verification for the coupled model were performed on parallel clusters of high-performance workstations. MPI was used for the data exchange in the iteratively coupled procedure. Different constitutive models were coded into GPAS to describe complicated behaviors of linear or nonlinear deformation in the geomechanics model. In addition, the geomechanics module was coupled with the dual porosity model in GPAS to simulate naturally fractured reservoirs. The developed coupled reservoir and geomechanics simulator was verified using analytical solutions. Various reservoir simulation case studies were carried out using the coupled geomechanics and GPAS modules.
Book Synopsis Development of a Compositional Model Fully Coupled with Geomechanics and Its Application to Tight Oil Reservoir Simulation by : Yi Xiong
Download or read book Development of a Compositional Model Fully Coupled with Geomechanics and Its Application to Tight Oil Reservoir Simulation written by Yi Xiong and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page 144 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Asphaltenes, Heavy Oils, and Petroleomics by : Oliver C. Mullins
Download or read book Asphaltenes, Heavy Oils, and Petroleomics written by Oliver C. Mullins and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2007-11-08 with total page 677 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With substantial contributions from experienced industrial scientists and engineers, this work will have real application towards improving process efficiency and improvement in the trillion-dollar global petroleum industry. It presents an overview of the emerging field of petroleomics, which endeavors to understand the fundamental components of crude oil. Petroleomics promises to revolutionize petroleum science in much the same way that genomics transformed the study of medicine not long ago. Asphaltenes are a particular focus, with many chapters devoted to the analysis of their structure and properties.
Book Synopsis Fast and Robust Phase Behavior Modeling for Compositional Reservoir Simulation by : Yinghui Li
Download or read book Fast and Robust Phase Behavior Modeling for Compositional Reservoir Simulation written by Yinghui Li and published by . This book was released on 2007 with total page 203 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A significant percentage of computational time in compositional simulations is spent performing flash calculations to determine the equilibrium compositions of hydrocarbon phases in situ. Flash calculations must be done at each time step for each grid block; thus billions of such calculations are possible. It would be very important to reduce the computational time of flash calculations significantly so that more grid blocks or components may be used. In this dissertation, three different methods are developed that yield fast, robust and accurate phase behavior calculations useful for compositional simulation and other applications. The first approach is to express the mixing rule in equations-of-state (EOS) so that a flash calculation is at most a function of six variables, often referred to as reduced parameters, regardless of the number of pseudocomponents. This is done without sacrificing accuracy and with improved robustness compared with the conventional method. This approach is extended for flash calculations with three or more phases. The reduced method is also derived for use in stability analysis, yielding significant speedup. The second approach improves flash calculations when K-values are assumed constant. We developed a new continuous objective function with improved linearity and specified a small window in which the equilibrium compositions must lie. The calculation speed and robustness of the constant K-value flash are significantly improved. This new approach replaces the Rachford-Rice procedure that is embedded in the conventional flash calculations. In the last approach, a limited compositional model for ternary systems is developed using a novel transformation method. In this method, all tie lines in ternary systems are first transformed to a new compositional space where all tie lines are made parallel. The binodal curves in the transformed space are regressed with any accurate function. Equilibrium phase behavior calculations are then done in this transformed space non-iteratively. The compositions in the transformed space are translated back to the actual compositional space. The new method is very fast and robust because no iteration is required and thus always converges even at the critical point because it is a direct method. The implementation of some of these approaches into compositional simulators, for example UTCOMP or GPAS, shows that they are faster than conventional flash calculations, without sacrificing simulation accuracy. For example, the implementation of the transformation method into UTCOMP shows that the new method is more than ten times faster than conventional flash calculations.
Book Synopsis Continuous Thermodynamics for Compositional Reservoir Simulation by : Dwarkaprasad S. Chakravarty
Download or read book Continuous Thermodynamics for Compositional Reservoir Simulation written by Dwarkaprasad S. Chakravarty and published by . This book was released on 1993 with total page 234 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
