Read Books Online and Download eBooks, EPub, PDF, Mobi, Kindle, Text Full Free.
Analysis Of Great Lakes Snowfall Amounts In Relation To Influences By Regional Climate Change And Physiological Changes To The Great Lakes Region
Download Analysis Of Great Lakes Snowfall Amounts In Relation To Influences By Regional Climate Change And Physiological Changes To The Great Lakes Region full books in PDF, epub, and Kindle. Read online Analysis Of Great Lakes Snowfall Amounts In Relation To Influences By Regional Climate Change And Physiological Changes To The Great Lakes Region ebook anywhere anytime directly on your device. Fast Download speed and no annoying ads. We cannot guarantee that every ebooks is available!
Book Synopsis Analysis of Great Lakes Snowfall Amounts in Relation to Influences by Regional Climate Change and Physiological Changes to the Great Lakes Region by : Dustin A. Snare
Download or read book Analysis of Great Lakes Snowfall Amounts in Relation to Influences by Regional Climate Change and Physiological Changes to the Great Lakes Region written by Dustin A. Snare and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page 68 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis THE GREAT LAKES CLIMATE ANALYSIS USING A TWO-WAY COUPLED 3-D GREAT LAKES -ATMOSPHERE REGIONAL MODEL WITH DATA ASSIMILATION METHODOLOGY by :
Download or read book THE GREAT LAKES CLIMATE ANALYSIS USING A TWO-WAY COUPLED 3-D GREAT LAKES -ATMOSPHERE REGIONAL MODEL WITH DATA ASSIMILATION METHODOLOGY written by and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Abstract : The objective of this work is to provide the best estimation of physical state of the Great Lakes using the two-way coupled Great Lakes-Atmosphere Regional Model (GLARM) integrated with Data Assimilation (DA) methodology. The aim of the first part is to understand the lake internal process that determines the relationship between lake surface temperature (LST) and lake thermal variations. A 3-D hydrodynamic model was used to examine the nonlinear processes of water mixing and ice formation that caused changes in lake heat content and further variation of LST. The results show that heat content trends do not necessarily follow (and can even be opposed to) trends in LST. In addition, the lake total lake heat content, thermal properties, length of stratification periods, and lake stability intensity were analyzed using validated GLARM 3-D results from 1983-2016. Furthermore, the lake thermal variations were analyzed using physical stability indices. The results reveal that climate change would not only affect the air-lake energy exchange but can also alter lake internal dynamics. In the second part, a Great Lakes forecast system with both long-term and short-term predictions is presented. A downscaled, robust, and sophisticated two-way coupled GLARM model was used to project the climate change over the Great Lakes region over the periods of 2030 - 2050 and 2080 - 2100. Two Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) emissions scenarios (RCP4.5, RCP8.5) were included. As a result, the stress in air temperature and precipitation during the period of 2080 - 2100 under the high emission scenario (RCP8.5) will be exacerbated with larger spatial variability compared with the medium emission scenario (RCP4.5). For lake conditions, annual mean LST of Lake Erie shows the largest changes among the five lakes. The decrease in the mean lake ice coverage is projected over all the five lakes, while the largest decrease occurs along the coast. Furthermore, the application of DA using Lake Erie as a case study was evaluated. The results show that DA can effectively improve the model performance with limited observational data. The data assimilative model also improves forecasting accuracy and restrains the forecasting uncertainty to an acceptable level on a timescale of 1-7 days after unleashed from DA.
Book Synopsis Understanding the Impacts of Historic Climate Variability and Climate Change on Lakes in the Great Lakes Region by : Mishar Vimal
Download or read book Understanding the Impacts of Historic Climate Variability and Climate Change on Lakes in the Great Lakes Region written by Mishar Vimal and published by . This book was released on 2010 with total page 216 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Lakes and wetlands are prevalent in the Great Lakes Region of the United States. They play an important role in regional and local hydroclimatology due to the large differences in albedo, heat capacity, roughness and energy exchange in comparison to that of the land surface. Lakes and wetlands affect the regional water cycle by providing additional storage for surface runoff within a watershed. Water leaves the watershed more slowly, which leads to an increase in evaporation and baseflow. Lakes influence the energy cycle by changing the partitioning of energy cycle components (i.e. latent heat, sensible heat, and net radiation) due to differences in albedo, heat capacity, and roughness with vegetative surface. Climate variability and climate change affect the regional scale water and energy cycle by modifying climatic variables such as precipitation, air temperature, solar radiation, and wind speed. These variables influence the seasonal dynamics of lakes including heat storage during the ice-free season and ice cover in the winter. Changes in lake ice and heat storage in turn feedback to local and regional climate making them a potentially important part of the climate system in regions with lots of small lakes (i.e. Great Lakes Region). The overarching goal of this study is to understand the impacts of historic climate variability and climate change on lakes and wetlands in the Great Lakes Region of the United States. To study hydroclimatic impacts, an integrated approach combining in-situ and remotely sensed observations with land surface modeling is adopted. The Variable infiltration capacity (VIC) model with a physically based lake algorithm was used to study the long-term (1916-2007) impacts of historic climate variability and climate change. The VIC model was calibrated and evaluated against daily streamflow, energy fluxes, inundation area, lake water temperature, and lake ice freeze-up and break-up dates. A method for developing depth-area relationships for the lakes in the study domain is derived based on observed bathymetric data for lakes in Michigan and applied to lakes in Minnesota and Wisconsin."--Pages xviii-xix.
Author :U.S. Global Change Research Program Publisher :Cambridge University Press ISBN 13 :0521144078 Total Pages :193 pages Book Rating :4.5/5 (211 download)
Book Synopsis Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States by : U.S. Global Change Research Program
Download or read book Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States written by U.S. Global Change Research Program and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2009-08-24 with total page 193 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Summarizes the science of climate change and impacts on the United States, for the public and policymakers.
Book Synopsis Potential Climate Change Effects on Great Lakes Hydrodynamics and Water Quality by : David C. L. Lam
Download or read book Potential Climate Change Effects on Great Lakes Hydrodynamics and Water Quality written by David C. L. Lam and published by ASCE Publications. This book was released on 1999-01-01 with total page 236 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This report provides a state-of-the-art review of the climate change effects on lake hydrodynamics and water quality. Most of the engineering cases in this book deal with the ability of existing infrastructure to cope with extreme weather conditions. The case studies are intended to illustrate the advancement in modeling research on lake hydrodynamics, thermal stratification, pollutant transport, and water quality by highlighting the climate change aspects in the application of these techniques. Topics include climate and lake responses, lake thermodynamics, large-scale circulation, wind-waves on large lakes, great lakes ice cover, and water quality.
Author :Val L. Eichenlaub Publisher :Notre Dame, Ind. : University of Notre Dame Press ISBN 13 : Total Pages :360 pages Book Rating :4.3/5 (91 download)
Book Synopsis Weather and Climate of the Great Lakes Region by : Val L. Eichenlaub
Download or read book Weather and Climate of the Great Lakes Region written by Val L. Eichenlaub and published by Notre Dame, Ind. : University of Notre Dame Press. This book was released on 1979 with total page 360 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Explains the atmospheric processes underlying the characteristic weather patterns of the Great Lakes region and evaluates the role of air pollution and nuclear power plants.
Book Synopsis Lake Effects on Climatic Conditions in the Great Lakes Basin by : Robert W. Scott
Download or read book Lake Effects on Climatic Conditions in the Great Lakes Basin written by Robert W. Scott and published by . This book was released on 1997 with total page 84 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Author :National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Publisher :National Academies Press ISBN 13 :0309471699 Total Pages :207 pages Book Rating :4.3/5 (94 download)
Book Synopsis Review of the Draft Fourth National Climate Assessment by : National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
Download or read book Review of the Draft Fourth National Climate Assessment written by National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2018-06-18 with total page 207 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Climate change poses many challenges that affect society and the natural world. With these challenges, however, come opportunities to respond. By taking steps to adapt to and mitigate climate change, the risks to society and the impacts of continued climate change can be lessened. The National Climate Assessment, coordinated by the U.S. Global Change Research Program, is a mandated report intended to inform response decisions. Required to be developed every four years, these reports provide the most comprehensive and up-to-date evaluation of climate change impacts available for the United States, making them a unique and important climate change document. The draft Fourth National Climate Assessment (NCA4) report reviewed here addresses a wide range of topics of high importance to the United States and society more broadly, extending from human health and community well-being, to the built environment, to businesses and economies, to ecosystems and natural resources. This report evaluates the draft NCA4 to determine if it meets the requirements of the federal mandate, whether it provides accurate information grounded in the scientific literature, and whether it effectively communicates climate science, impacts, and responses for general audiences including the public, decision makers, and other stakeholders.
Book Synopsis Climate Change in the Upper Great Lakes Region by : Peter J. Sousounis
Download or read book Climate Change in the Upper Great Lakes Region written by Peter J. Sousounis and published by . This book was released on 1998 with total page 168 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Radar Polarimetry for Weather Observations by : Alexander V. Ryzhkov
Download or read book Radar Polarimetry for Weather Observations written by Alexander V. Ryzhkov and published by Springer. This book was released on 2019-03-25 with total page 486 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This monograph offers a wide array of contemporary information on weather radar polarimetry and its applications. The book tightly connects the microphysical processes responsible for the development and evolution of the clouds’ bulk physical properties to the polarimetric variables, and contains the procedures on how to simulate realistic polarimetric variables. With up-to-date polarimetric methodologies and applications, the book will appeal to practicing radar meteorologists, hydrologists, microphysicists, and modelers who are interested in the bulk properties of hydrometeors and quantification of these with the goals to improve precipitation measurements, understanding of precipitation processes, or model forecasts.
Author :Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group II. Publisher :Cambridge University Press ISBN 13 :9780521634557 Total Pages :532 pages Book Rating :4.6/5 (345 download)
Book Synopsis The Regional Impacts of Climate Change by : Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group II.
Download or read book The Regional Impacts of Climate Change written by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group II. and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 1998 with total page 532 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Book Synopsis Historical Changes in Precipitation and Streamflow in the U.S. Great Lakes Basin, 1915-2004 by : Glenn Hodgkins
Download or read book Historical Changes in Precipitation and Streamflow in the U.S. Great Lakes Basin, 1915-2004 written by Glenn Hodgkins and published by . This book was released on 2007 with total page 42 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Author :Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Publisher :Cambridge University Press ISBN 13 :9781009157971 Total Pages :755 pages Book Rating :4.1/5 (579 download)
Book Synopsis The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate by : Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Download or read book The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate written by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2022-04-30 with total page 755 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the leading international body for assessing the science related to climate change. It provides policymakers with regular assessments of the scientific basis of human-induced climate change, its impacts and future risks, and options for adaptation and mitigation. This IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate is the most comprehensive and up-to-date assessment of the observed and projected changes to the ocean and cryosphere and their associated impacts and risks, with a focus on resilience, risk management response options, and adaptation measures, considering both their potential and limitations. It brings together knowledge on physical and biogeochemical changes, the interplay with ecosystem changes, and the implications for human communities. It serves policymakers, decision makers, stakeholders, and all interested parties with unbiased, up-to-date, policy-relevant information. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
Book Synopsis Climatological Trends and Predictions in Snowfall Over the Canadian Snowbelts of the Laurentian Great Lakes Basin by : Janine A. Baijnath-Rodino
Download or read book Climatological Trends and Predictions in Snowfall Over the Canadian Snowbelts of the Laurentian Great Lakes Basin written by Janine A. Baijnath-Rodino and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page 135 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The leeward shores of the Laurentian Great Lakes are highly susceptible to lake-induced snowfall that is either driven by extratropical cyclones or lake effect processes. During the late autumn and winter season, cold air advection over relatively warm lakes induces instability in the lower planetary boundary layer (PBL). This process facilitates the exchange of moisture and energy fluxes and fuels the development of snowfall. In addition, the large thermal capacity of the lakes can enhance existing precipitation that is associated with frontal boundaries moving over the Great Lakes Basin (GLB). Lake-induced snowfall can produce whiteout snowsqualls and heavy snowfall accumulations in highly localized areas, which can affect residential, agricultural, economic, and recreational sectors within the GLB. Therefore, the dangerous impacts of lake-induced snowfall on snowbelt communities warrant the need for improved spatiotemporal investigations in observed and predicted snowfall. Despite many snowfall studies, three gaps have been identified. The first gap suggests that minimal snowfall research has been conducted for the Ontario snowbelts of Lake Superior and Lake Huron-Georgian Bay (hereinafter referred to as Lake Huron). The second gap identifies that there has been limited investigations conducted on climatological trends in snowfall and LES predictor variables. The third gap suggests that most lake-induced snowfall studies have employed coarse global climate models (GCMs) and regional climate models (RCMs) at spatial resolutions that make it difficult to delineate meso-beta scale LES snow bands. Thus, the objective of this study is to conduct historical spatiotemporal trends in snowfall and LES predictor variables, and to examine the predictive performance of a RCM in capturing LES events for the under-studied regions of the Canadian Laurentian Great Lakes' snowbelts. Manuscript 1 investigated 1980-2015 spatiotemporal trends in monthly total snowfall and total precipitation over the GLB using the Daymet (Version 3), hereinafter referred to as Daymet, gridded dataset. Results showed a significant decrease in snowfall (at the 95% confidence level), at a rate of 40 cm/36yrs, and a significant decrease in total precipitation of 20 mm/36yrs, along the Ontario snowbelts of Lake Superior and partially along that of Lake Huron. Attributions to these negative spatiotemporal trends are explored using data from the North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR) and the Canadian Ice Service (CIS). Predictor variables showed significant warming in lake surface temperature (LST) at a rate of over 6 °K/36yrs for Lake Superior; significant decrease in ice cover fraction for both lakes; and an increase in the vertical temperature gradient (VTG). While the resultant trends of these variables are believed to enhance snowfall in these regions, through increased evaporation into the lower PBL, there are other complex processes involved, such as inefficient moisture recycling and increased moisture storage in warmer air masses that inhibit the rapid production of precipitation. Following the identification of trends in monthly snowfall totals, the second manuscript explored whether historical spatiotemporal trends in monthly snowfall extremes were also changing. Manuscript 2 assessed the intensity, frequency, and duration of snowfall within Ontario's GLB. Monthly spatiotemporal snowfall and total precipitation trends were computed for the 1980-2015 period using Daymet. Results showed that extreme snowfall intensity, frequency, and duration have significantly decreased, at the 90% confidence level, predominantly in December and January along Lake Superior's snowbelt. Intensity has decreased at a rate of approximately 6 cm/36yrs and 2 cm/36yrs for December and January, respectively. The frequency in extreme snowfall events has decreased by 5 days/36yrs. Furthermore, the number of consecutive days of extreme snowfall events have decreased at a rate of 1 day/36yrs. The Canadian snowbelts of Lake Superior and Lake Huron exhibited different spatiotemporal patterns, and even within a particular snowbelt region, trends in extreme snowfall are not spatially coherent. Discussions into the local and large-scale surface-atmosphere variables that influence these spatiotemporal trends were presented. Finally, in order to investigate future trends in snowfall over the GLB, reliable high resolution RCMs are required to accurately predict historical LES events. Thus, Manuscript 3 conducted validation testing on the high resolution, 0.11° (12 km), Canadian Regional Climate Model Version 5 (CRCM5), interactively coupled to the one-dimensional Freshwater Lake model (FLake). Predictions of snow water equivalent (SWE) and precipitation along the Canadian snowbelts of Lake Superior and Lake Huron during the months of December and January were tested for the period 1995-2014. This study assessed the model's performance in predicting the timing, location, and precipitation accumulation of specific lake-induced events during a high (2013-2014) and a low (20112012) ice season. Findings showed that December SWE had a negative mean bias difference (MBD) [less than or equal to] -10 mm along both snowbelts, with values [less than or equal to]-30 mm in January. Similarly, December precipitation showed MBD [less than or equal to]-5 mm and January's precipitation MBD [less than or equal to] -10 mm for both snowbelts. Comparison of lake-induced precipitation events also showed that the model mostly under-predicts the daily accumulated precipitation associated with each event but tends to accurately capture the timing and the general location of the snowsqualls along the snowbelts, though not for highly localized snow bands. The findings gained from this thesis, through exploring historical spatiotemporal snowfall trends and RCM validation analyses, are essential for sustainability and adaptation studies.
Book Synopsis An Investigation of Historical Lake-atmosphere Interactions in the Great Lakes Basin by :
Download or read book An Investigation of Historical Lake-atmosphere Interactions in the Great Lakes Basin written by and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Laurentian Great Lakes are a tremendous freshwater resource, holding approximately 20% of the world's unfrozen freshwater. With a combined surface area of 244,000 km2, the Great Lakes are constantly interacting with the overlying atmosphere through fluxes of heat, moisture, and momentum. In the current study, we explore interactions between the Great Lakes and overlying atmosphere using a combination of observational and modeling tools. Results based on historical observations indicate that over-lake precipitation from the Lake Superior watershed is associated with transient Rossby waves during each month of the year. Further analysis indicates the origin and path of these waves change with the background flow. During summer and early fall, the Pacific jet is relatively sharp and acts as a waveguide, such that Rossby wave trains traversing the Great Lakes region do not follow a great-circle path. While the atmosphere primarily dictates hydrology in the Great Lakes basin, each of the Great Lakes feeds back on the overlying atmosphere, ultimately influencing the local and regional climate. Historical observational and modeling studies support this claim; however, a consistent, long-term analysis of the impacts of the Great Lakes on climate has yet to be executed. In the current analysis, the influence of the Great Lakes on climate is assessed by comparing two decade-long regional climate simulations, with the lakes present or replaced by woodland. Model results indicate the Great Lakes dampen seasonal and daily surface air temperature ranges, alter the strength and track of synoptic systems, and modify atmospheric stability. Additional analysis based on output from the regional climate model indicates that seasonal fluctuations in atmospheric stability over Lake Superior influence the ratio of over-lake to over-land precipitation. Since the current operational technique used to estimate over-lake precipitation does not account for variations in atmospheric stability, these estimates are likely too high during stable, warm-season months, and too low during less-stable or unstable, cold-season months. Collectively, results from this analysis demonstrate the significance of atmospheric forcing and lake feedbacks on hydrology and climate throughout the Great Lakes basin.
Book Synopsis PREDICTING THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE GREAT LAKES WATER LEVELS USING A FULLY COUPLED 3D REGIONAL MODELING SYSTEM by :
Download or read book PREDICTING THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE GREAT LAKES WATER LEVELS USING A FULLY COUPLED 3D REGIONAL MODELING SYSTEM written by and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Abstract : The Great Lakes of North America are the largest surface freshwater system in the world and many ecosystems, industries, and coastal processes are sensitive to the changes in their water levels. The recent changes in the Great Lakes climate and water levels have particularly highlighted the importance of water level prediction. The water levels of the Great Lakes are primarily governed by the net basin supplies (NBS) of each lake which are the sum of over-lake precipitation and basin runoff minus lake evaporation. Recent studies have utilized Regional Climate Models (RCMs) with a fully coupled one-dimensional (1D) lake model to predict the future NBS, and the Coordinated Great Lakes Regulating and Routing Model (CGLRRM) has been used to predict the future water levels. However, multiple studies have emphasized the need for a three-dimensional (3D) lake model to accurately simulate the Great Lakes water budget. Therefore, in this study, we used the Great Lakes-Atmosphere Regional Model (GLARM) along with the Large Basin Runoff Model (LBRM) and CGLRRM to predict the changes in NBS and water levels by the mid- and late twenty-first century. GLARM is a 3D regional climate modeling system for the Great Lakes region that is fully coupled to a 3D hydrodynamic lake and ice model. This is the first study to use such an advanced model for water level prediction in the Great Lakes. We found that both annual over-lake precipitation and basin runoff are most likely to increase into the future. We also found that annual lake evaporation is most likely to decrease in Lake Superior but increase in all the other lakes. We posit that the decreases in evaporation are due to decreased wind speed over the lakes and decreased difference between saturated and actual specific humidity over the lakes. Our predicted changes in the three components of NBS would lead to mostly increased NBS and water levels in the future. The ensemble average of our predicted water level changes for Lake Superior, Michigan-Huron, and Erie are +0.14 m, +0.37 m, and +0.23 m by the mid-twenty-first century, respectively, and +0.47 m, +1.29 m, and +0.80 m by the late twenty-first century, respectively. However, due to the multiple sources of uncertainties associated with climate modeling and predictions, the water level predictions from this study should not be viewed as exact predictions. These predictions are unique to our model configuration and methodology. Other studies can easily predict different water level changes through the use of different models and methodologies. Therefore, more predictions from advanced modeling systems like GLARM are needed to generate a consensus on future water level changes in the Great Lakes.
Book Synopsis Spatial and Temporal Variation in Lake-effect Snow Control Vegetational Distributions in the Great Lakes Region by : Paul D. Henne
Download or read book Spatial and Temporal Variation in Lake-effect Snow Control Vegetational Distributions in the Great Lakes Region written by Paul D. Henne and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page 242 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Recent declines in the amount and duration of snow in the Northern Hemisphere are anticipated to continue as a result of greenhouse warming. The consequences of such changes for northern forests are uncertain. The Great Lakes region offers a unique setting to examine spatial and temporal variability in snowfall abundance and the impact of such variability on vegetational distributions. Lake-effect snowfall produces a threefold gradient (100--300 cm) in this region. I compared the importance of lake-effect snow relative to a suite of environmental factors as a predictor mesic-species abundance using a geographic information system and predictive modeling. Lake-effect snow, not soil texture, is the dominant control of regional mesic-forest distribution on the modern landscape. Mesic species dominate on all landform types (e.g. till, outwash) inside the lake-effect snowbelt, whereas they are restricted to fine-textured landforms outside the snowbelt. I also determined when lake-effect snowbelts developed during the Holocene by comparing oxygen-isotope data from one snowbelt and one non-snowbelt lake. These sites share similar climatic histories during the early Holocene. However, between 8500 and 5500 cal yr B.P., increasing lake-effect snow caused 18O-depletion at the snowbelt lake relative to the non-snowbelt lake, with the largest changes occurring after 6900 cal yr B.P. These differences lessened after 5500 cal yr B.P. but the snowbelt site continued to receive more snowfall. I integrated these isotopic data with pollen analysis from two snowbelt and two non-snowbelt lakes. One lake in each snowfall regime is situated on till and the other on outwash. Vegetational change was synchronous among these sites during the early Holocene prior to snowbelt development. A shift to mesic-hardwood forests after 5500 cal yr B.P. occurred only at the snowbelt sites. Snowfall variability was a more important constraint on vegetational change than edaphic variation.
