An Introduction To Benfords Law

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An Introduction to Benford's Law

Author : Arno Berger
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 0691163065
Total Pages : 256 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (911 download)

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Book Synopsis An Introduction to Benford's Law by : Arno Berger

Download or read book An Introduction to Benford's Law written by Arno Berger and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2015-05-26 with total page 256 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides the first comprehensive treatment of Benford's law, the surprising logarithmic distribution of significant digits discovered in the late nineteenth century. Establishing the mathematical and statistical principles that underpin this intriguing phenomenon, the text combines up-to-date theoretical results with overviews of the law’s colorful history, rapidly growing body of empirical evidence, and wide range of applications. An Introduction to Benford’s Law begins with basic facts about significant digits, Benford functions, sequences, and random variables, including tools from the theory of uniform distribution. After introducing the scale-, base-, and sum-invariance characterizations of the law, the book develops the significant-digit properties of both deterministic and stochastic processes, such as iterations of functions, powers of matrices, differential equations, and products, powers, and mixtures of random variables. Two concluding chapters survey the finitely additive theory and the flourishing applications of Benford’s law. Carefully selected diagrams, tables, and close to 150 examples illuminate the main concepts throughout. The text includes many open problems, in addition to dozens of new basic theorems and all the main references. A distinguishing feature is the emphasis on the surprising ubiquity and robustness of the significant-digit law. This text can serve as both a primary reference and a basis for seminars and courses.

Benford's Law

Author : Steven J. Miller
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 1400866596
Total Pages : 465 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (8 download)

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Book Synopsis Benford's Law by : Steven J. Miller

Download or read book Benford's Law written by Steven J. Miller and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2015-06-09 with total page 465 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Benford's law states that the leading digits of many data sets are not uniformly distributed from one through nine, but rather exhibit a profound bias. This bias is evident in everything from electricity bills and street addresses to stock prices, population numbers, mortality rates, and the lengths of rivers. Here, Steven Miller brings together many of the world’s leading experts on Benford’s law to demonstrate the many useful techniques that arise from the law, show how truly multidisciplinary it is, and encourage collaboration. Beginning with the general theory, the contributors explain the prevalence of the bias, highlighting explanations for when systems should and should not follow Benford’s law and how quickly such behavior sets in. They go on to discuss important applications in disciplines ranging from accounting and economics to psychology and the natural sciences. The contributors describe how Benford’s law has been successfully used to expose fraud in elections, medical tests, tax filings, and financial reports. Additionally, numerous problems, background materials, and technical details are available online to help instructors create courses around the book. Emphasizing common challenges and techniques across the disciplines, this accessible book shows how Benford’s law can serve as a productive meeting ground for researchers and practitioners in diverse fields.

Benford's Law

Author : Mark J. Nigrini
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1118286863
Total Pages : 352 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (182 download)

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Book Synopsis Benford's Law by : Mark J. Nigrini

Download or read book Benford's Law written by Mark J. Nigrini and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2012-03-09 with total page 352 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A powerful new tool for all forensic accountants, or anyone whoanalyzes data that may have been altered Benford's Law gives the expected patterns of the digits in thenumbers in tabulated data such as town and city populations orMadoff's fictitious portfolio returns. Those digits, in unaltereddata, will not occur in equal proportions; there is a large biastowards the lower digits, so much so that nearly one-half of allnumbers are expected to start with the digits 1 or 2. Thesepatterns were originally discovered by physicist Frank Benford inthe early 1930s, and have since been found to apply to alltabulated data. Mark J. Nigrini has been a pioneer in applyingBenford's Law to auditing and forensic accounting, even before hisgroundbreaking 1999 Journal of Accountancy article introducing thisuseful tool to the accounting world. In Benford's Law, Nigrinishows the widespread applicability of Benford's Law and itspractical uses to detect fraud, errors, and other anomalies. Explores primary, associated, and advanced tests, all describedwith data sets that include corporate payments data and electiondata Includes ten fraud detection studies, including vendor fraud,payroll fraud, due diligence when purchasing a business, and taxevasion Covers financial statement fraud, with data from Enron, AIG,and companies that were the target of hedge fund short sales Looks at how to detect Ponzi schemes, including data on Madoff,Waxenberg, and more Examines many other applications, from the Clinton tax returnsand the charitable gifts of Lehman Brothers to tax evasion andnumber invention Benford's Law has 250 figures and uses 50 interestingauthentic and fraudulent real-world data sets to explain boththeory and practice, and concludes with an agenda and directionsfor future research. The companion website adds additionalinformation and resources.

Forensic Analytics

Author : Mark J. Nigrini
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119585902
Total Pages : 549 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (195 download)

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Book Synopsis Forensic Analytics by : Mark J. Nigrini

Download or read book Forensic Analytics written by Mark J. Nigrini and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2020-04-20 with total page 549 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Become the forensic analytics expert in your organization using effective and efficient data analysis tests to find anomalies, biases, and potential fraud—the updated new edition Forensic Analytics reviews the methods and techniques that forensic accountants can use to detect intentional and unintentional errors, fraud, and biases. This updated second edition shows accountants and auditors how analyzing their corporate or public sector data can highlight transactions, balances, or subsets of transactions or balances in need of attention. These tests are made up of a set of initial high-level overview tests followed by a series of more focused tests. These focused tests use a variety of quantitative methods including Benford’s Law, outlier detection, the detection of duplicates, a comparison to benchmarks, time-series methods, risk-scoring, and sometimes simply statistical logic. The tests in the new edition include the newly developed vector variation score that quantifies the change in an array of data from one period to the next. The goals of the tests are to either produce a small sample of suspicious transactions, a small set of transaction groups, or a risk score related to individual transactions or a group of items. The new edition includes over two hundred figures. Each chapter, where applicable, includes one or more cases showing how the tests under discussion could have detected the fraud or anomalies. The new edition also includes two chapters each describing multi-million-dollar fraud schemes and the insights that can be learned from those examples. These interesting real-world examples help to make the text accessible and understandable for accounting professionals and accounting students without rigorous backgrounds in mathematics and statistics. Emphasizing practical applications, the new edition shows how to use either Excel or Access to run these analytics tests. The book also has some coverage on using Minitab, IDEA, R, and Tableau to run forensic-focused tests. The use of SAS and Power BI rounds out the software coverage. The software screenshots use the latest versions of the software available at the time of writing. This authoritative book: Describes the use of statistically-based techniques including Benford’s Law, descriptive statistics, and the vector variation score to detect errors and anomalies Shows how to run most of the tests in Access and Excel, and other data analysis software packages for a small sample of the tests Applies the tests under review in each chapter to the same purchasing card data from a government entity Includes interesting cases studies throughout that are linked to the tests being reviewed. Includes two comprehensive case studies where data analytics could have detected the frauds before they reached multi-million-dollar levels Includes a continually-updated companion website with the data sets used in the chapters, the queries used in the chapters, extra coverage of some topics or cases, end of chapter questions, and end of chapter cases. Written by a prominent educator and researcher in forensic accounting and auditing, the new edition of Forensic Analytics: Methods and Techniques for Forensic Accounting Investigations is an essential resource for forensic accountants, auditors, comptrollers, fraud investigators, and graduate students.

The Grapes of Math

Author : Alex Bellos
Publisher : Simon and Schuster
ISBN 13 : 1451640129
Total Pages : 352 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (516 download)

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Book Synopsis The Grapes of Math by : Alex Bellos

Download or read book The Grapes of Math written by Alex Bellos and published by Simon and Schuster. This book was released on 2014-06-10 with total page 352 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From triangles, rotations and power laws, to cones, curves and the dreaded calculus, Alex takes you on a journey of mathematical discovery with his signature wit and limitless enthusiasm. He sifts through over 30,000 survey submissions to uncover the world’s favourite number, and meets a mathematician who looks for universes in his garage. He attends the World Mathematical Congress in India, and visits the engineer who designed the first roller-coaster loop. Get hooked on math as Alex delves deep into humankind’s turbulent relationship with numbers, and reveals how they have shaped the world we live in.

Benford's Law

Author : Alex Ely Kossovsky
Publisher : World Scientific Publishing Company
ISBN 13 : 9789814651202
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (512 download)

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Book Synopsis Benford's Law by : Alex Ely Kossovsky

Download or read book Benford's Law written by Alex Ely Kossovsky and published by World Scientific Publishing Company. This book was released on 2015 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This leads to the key finding that the phenomenon is actually quantitative in nature. Why? The author illustrates that in extreme generality, nature creates many small quantities but very few big quantities, corroborating the motto "small is beautiful", and that therefore all this is applicable just as well to data written in the ancient Roman, Mayan, Egyptian, and other digit-less civilizations. Fraudsters are typically not aware of this digital pattern and tend to invent numbers with approximately equal digital frequencies. The digital analyst can easily check reported data for compliance with this digital law, enabling the detection of tax evasion, Ponzi schemes, and other financial scams.

Introductory Statistics

Author : Sheldon M. Ross
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 0080922104
Total Pages : 841 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (89 download)

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Book Synopsis Introductory Statistics by : Sheldon M. Ross

Download or read book Introductory Statistics written by Sheldon M. Ross and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2010-01-19 with total page 841 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Introductory Statistics, Third Edition, presents statistical concepts and techniques in a manner that will teach students not only how and when to utilize the statistical procedures developed, but also to understand why these procedures should be used. This book offers a unique historical perspective, profiling prominent statisticians and historical events in order to motivate learning. To help guide students towards independent learning, exercises and examples using real issues and real data (e.g., stock price models, health issues, gender issues, sports, scientific fraud) are provided. The chapters end with detailed reviews of important concepts and formulas, key terms, and definitions that are useful study tools. Data sets from text and exercise material are available for download in the text website. This text is designed for introductory non-calculus based statistics courses that are offered by mathematics and/or statistics departments to undergraduate students taking a semester course in basic Statistics or a year course in Probability and Statistics. - Unique historical perspective profiling prominent statisticians and historical events to motivate learning by providing interest and context - Use of exercises and examples helps guide the student towards indpendent learning using real issues and real data, e.g. stock price models, health issues, gender issues, sports, scientific fraud. - Summary/Key Terms- chapters end with detailed reviews of important concepts and formulas, key terms and definitions which are useful to students as study tools

Probably Not

Author : Lawrence N. Dworsky
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 0470282045
Total Pages : 328 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (72 download)

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Book Synopsis Probably Not by : Lawrence N. Dworsky

Download or read book Probably Not written by Lawrence N. Dworsky and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2008-05-23 with total page 328 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An engaging, entertaining, and informative introduction to probability and prediction in our everyday lives Although Probably Not deals with probability and statistics, it is not heavily mathematical and is not filled with complex derivations, proofs, and theoretical problem sets. This book unveils the world of statistics through questions such as what is known based upon the information at hand and what can be expected to happen. While learning essential concepts including "the confidence factor" and "random walks," readers will be entertained and intrigued as they move from chapter to chapter. Moreover, the author provides a foundation of basic principles to guide decision making in almost all facets of life including playing games, developing winning business strategies, and managing personal finances. Much of the book is organized around easy-to-follow examples that address common, everyday issues such as: How travel time is affected by congestion, driving speed, and traffic lights Why different gambling casino strategies ultimately offer players no advantage How to estimate how many different birds of one species are seen on a walk through the woods Seemingly random events—coin flip games, the Central Limit Theorem, binomial distributions and Poisson distributions, Parrando's Paradox, and Benford's Law—are addressed and treated through key concepts and methods in probability. In addition, fun-to-solve problems including "the shared birthday" and "the prize behind door number one, two, or three" are found throughout the book, which allow readers to test and practice their new probability skills. Requiring little background knowledge of mathematics, readers will gain a greater understanding of the many daily activities and events that involve random processes and statistics. Combining the mathematics of probability with real-world examples, Probably Not is an ideal reference for practitioners and students who would like to learn more about the role of probability and statistics in everyday decision making.

An Invitation to Modern Number Theory

Author : Steven J. Miller
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 0691215979
Total Pages : 526 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (912 download)

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Book Synopsis An Invitation to Modern Number Theory by : Steven J. Miller

Download or read book An Invitation to Modern Number Theory written by Steven J. Miller and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2020-07-21 with total page 526 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In a manner accessible to beginning undergraduates, An Invitation to Modern Number Theory introduces many of the central problems, conjectures, results, and techniques of the field, such as the Riemann Hypothesis, Roth's Theorem, the Circle Method, and Random Matrix Theory. Showing how experiments are used to test conjectures and prove theorems, the book allows students to do original work on such problems, often using little more than calculus (though there are numerous remarks for those with deeper backgrounds). It shows students what number theory theorems are used for and what led to them and suggests problems for further research. Steven Miller and Ramin Takloo-Bighash introduce the problems and the computational skills required to numerically investigate them, providing background material (from probability to statistics to Fourier analysis) whenever necessary. They guide students through a variety of problems, ranging from basic number theory, cryptography, and Goldbach's Problem, to the algebraic structures of numbers and continued fractions, showing connections between these subjects and encouraging students to study them further. In addition, this is the first undergraduate book to explore Random Matrix Theory, which has recently become a powerful tool for predicting answers in number theory. Providing exercises, references to the background literature, and Web links to previous student research projects, An Invitation to Modern Number Theory can be used to teach a research seminar or a lecture class.

Chaos and Chance

Author : Arno Berger
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9783110169911
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (699 download)

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Book Synopsis Chaos and Chance by : Arno Berger

Download or read book Chaos and Chance written by Arno Berger and published by . This book was released on 2001 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With emphasis on stochastic aspects of deterministic systems this short book introduces the reader to the basic facts and some special topics of applied ergodic theory. It adresses advanced undergraduate and graduate students from various disciplines, i.e. mathematicians, physicists, electrical and mechanical engineers. Based upon a sound (but non-technical) mathematical introduction, a number of typical examples from applications (mostly from mechanics) are thoroughly discussed. By studying both probabilistic and deterministic features of dynamical systems the reader will develop what might be considered a unified view on chaos and chance as two sides of the same thing.

Introduction to Probability

Author : David F. Anderson
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 110824498X
Total Pages : 447 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (82 download)

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Book Synopsis Introduction to Probability by : David F. Anderson

Download or read book Introduction to Probability written by David F. Anderson and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2017-11-02 with total page 447 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This classroom-tested textbook is an introduction to probability theory, with the right balance between mathematical precision, probabilistic intuition, and concrete applications. Introduction to Probability covers the material precisely, while avoiding excessive technical details. After introducing the basic vocabulary of randomness, including events, probabilities, and random variables, the text offers the reader a first glimpse of the major theorems of the subject: the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem. The important probability distributions are introduced organically as they arise from applications. The discrete and continuous sides of probability are treated together to emphasize their similarities. Intended for students with a calculus background, the text teaches not only the nuts and bolts of probability theory and how to solve specific problems, but also why the methods of solution work.

Probability

Author : Robert P. Dobrow
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1118589440
Total Pages : 366 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (185 download)

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Book Synopsis Probability by : Robert P. Dobrow

Download or read book Probability written by Robert P. Dobrow and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2013-10-16 with total page 366 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An introduction to probability at the undergraduate level Chance and randomness are encountered on a daily basis. Authored by a highly qualified professor in the field, Probability: With Applications and R delves into the theories and applications essential to obtaining a thorough understanding of probability. With real-life examples and thoughtful exercises from fields as diverse as biology, computer science, cryptology, ecology, public health, and sports, the book is accessible for a variety of readers. The book’s emphasis on simulation through the use of the popular R software language clarifies and illustrates key computational and theoretical results. Probability: With Applications and R helps readers develop problem-solving skills and delivers an appropriate mix of theory and application. The book includes: Chapters covering first principles, conditional probability, independent trials, random variables, discrete distributions, continuous probability, continuous distributions, conditional distribution, and limits An early introduction to random variables and Monte Carlo simulation and an emphasis on conditional probability, conditioning, and developing probabilistic intuition An R tutorial with example script files Many classic and historical problems of probability as well as nontraditional material, such as Benford’s law, power-law distributions, and Bayesian statistics A topics section with suitable material for projects and explorations, such as random walk on graphs, Markov chains, and Markov chain Monte Carlo Chapter-by-chapter summaries and hundreds of practical exercises Probability: With Applications and R is an ideal text for a beginning course in probability at the undergraduate level.

Statistics for Mathematicians

Author : Victor M. Panaretos
Publisher : Birkhäuser
ISBN 13 : 3319283413
Total Pages : 190 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (192 download)

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Book Synopsis Statistics for Mathematicians by : Victor M. Panaretos

Download or read book Statistics for Mathematicians written by Victor M. Panaretos and published by Birkhäuser. This book was released on 2016-06-01 with total page 190 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This textbook provides a coherent introduction to the main concepts and methods of one-parameter statistical inference. Intended for students of Mathematics taking their first course in Statistics, the focus is on Statistics for Mathematicians rather than on Mathematical Statistics. The goal is not to focus on the mathematical/theoretical aspects of the subject, but rather to provide an introduction to the subject tailored to the mindset and tastes of Mathematics students, who are sometimes turned off by the informal nature of Statistics courses. This book can be used as the basis for an elementary semester-long first course on Statistics with a firm sense of direction that does not sacrifice rigor. The deeper goal of the text is to attract the attention of promising Mathematics students.

Far Futures

Author : Gregory Benford
Publisher : Macmillan
ISBN 13 : 9780312863791
Total Pages : 352 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (637 download)

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Book Synopsis Far Futures by : Gregory Benford

Download or read book Far Futures written by Gregory Benford and published by Macmillan. This book was released on 1997-08-15 with total page 352 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Collection of five hard science fiction novellas, all set at least ten thousand years in the future that confront the issues of cosmology, astronomy, evolution, and biology.

Forensic Analytics

Author : Mark J. Nigrini
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1118087631
Total Pages : 480 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (18 download)

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Book Synopsis Forensic Analytics by : Mark J. Nigrini

Download or read book Forensic Analytics written by Mark J. Nigrini and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2011-05-12 with total page 480 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Discover how to detect fraud, biases, or errors in your data using Access or Excel With over 300 images, Forensic Analytics reviews and shows how twenty substantive and rigorous tests can be used to detect fraud, errors, estimates, or biases in your data. For each test, the original data is shown with the steps needed to get to the final result. The tests range from high-level data overviews to assess the reasonableness of data, to highly focused tests that give small samples of highly suspicious transactions. These tests are relevant to your organization, whether small or large, for profit, nonprofit, or government-related. Demonstrates how to use Access, Excel, and PowerPoint in a forensic setting Explores use of statistical techniques such as Benford's Law, descriptive statistics, correlation, and time-series analysis to detect fraud and errors Discusses the detection of financial statement fraud using various statistical approaches Explains how to score locations, agents, customers, or employees for fraud risk Shows you how to become the data analytics expert in your organization Forensic Analytics shows how you can use Microsoft Access and Excel as your primary data interrogation tools to find exceptional, irregular, and anomalous records.

Word Frequency Distributions

Author : R. Harald Baayen
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9780792370178
Total Pages : 374 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (71 download)

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Book Synopsis Word Frequency Distributions by : R. Harald Baayen

Download or read book Word Frequency Distributions written by R. Harald Baayen and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2001-07-31 with total page 374 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book is a comprehensive introduction to the statistical analysis of word frequency distributions, intended for computational linguists, corpus linguists, psycholinguists, and researchers in the field of quantitative stylistics. It aims to make these techniques more accessible for non-specialists, both theoretically, by means of a careful introduction to the underlying probabilistic and statistical concepts, and practically, by providing a program library implementing the main models for word frequency distributions.

An Introduction to Actuarial Mathematics

Author : Arjun K. Gupta
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9401707111
Total Pages : 359 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (17 download)

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Book Synopsis An Introduction to Actuarial Mathematics by : Arjun K. Gupta

Download or read book An Introduction to Actuarial Mathematics written by Arjun K. Gupta and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-04-17 with total page 359 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: to Actuarial Mathematics by A. K. Gupta Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, U. S. A. and T. Varga National Pension Insurance Fund. Budapest, Hungary SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B. V. A C. I. P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-90-481-5949-9 ISBN 978-94-017-0711-4 (eBook) DOI 10. 1007/978-94-017-0711-4 Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved © 2002 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2002 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. To Alka, Mita, and Nisha AKG To Terezia and Julianna TV TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix CHAPTER 1. FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1. 1. Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1. 2. Present Value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 1. 3. Annuities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 CHAPTER 2. MORTALITy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 2. 1 Survival Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 2. 2. Actuarial Functions of Mortality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 2. 3. Mortality Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 CHAPTER 3. LIFE INSURANCES AND ANNUITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 3. 1. Stochastic Cash Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 3. 2. Pure Endowments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 3. 3. Life Insurances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 3. 4. Endowments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 3. 5. Life Annuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 CHAPTER 4. PREMIUMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 4. 1. Net Premiums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 4. 2. Gross Premiums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Vll CHAPTER 5. RESERVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 5. 1. Net Premium Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 5. 2. Mortality Profit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 5. 3. Modified Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 ANSWERS TO ODD-NuMBERED PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .