Advances In Supercapacitor Technology And Applications

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Advances in Supercapacitor Technology and Applications

Author : Alon Kuperman
Publisher : MDPI
ISBN 13 : 3039363883
Total Pages : 164 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (393 download)

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Book Synopsis Advances in Supercapacitor Technology and Applications by : Alon Kuperman

Download or read book Advances in Supercapacitor Technology and Applications written by Alon Kuperman and published by MDPI. This book was released on 2020-12-15 with total page 164 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Energy storage is a key topic for research, industry, and business, which is gaining increasing interest. Any available energy-storage technology (batteries, fuel cells, flywheels, and so on) can cover a limited part of the power-energy plane and is characterized by some inherent drawback. Supercapacitors (also known as ultracapacitors, electrochemical capacitors, pseudocapacitors, or double-layer capacitors) feature exceptional capacitance values, creating new scenarios and opportunities in both research and industrial applications, partly because the related market is relatively recent. In practice, supercapacitors can offer a trade-off between the high specific energy of batteries and the high specific power of traditional capacitors. Developments in supercapacitor technology and supporting electronics, combined with reductions in costs, may revolutionize everything from large power systems to consumer electronics. The potential benefits of supercapacitors move from the progresses in the technological processes but can be effective by the availability of the proper tools for testing, modeling, diagnosis, sizing, management and technical-economic analyses. This book collects some of the latest developments in the field of supercapacitors, ranging from new materials to practical applications, such as energy storage, uninterruptible power supplies, smart grids, electrical vehicles, advanced transportation and renewable sources.

Advances in Supercapacitor and Supercapattery

Author : Mohammad Khalid
Publisher : Elsevier
ISBN 13 : 0128204036
Total Pages : 414 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (282 download)

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Book Synopsis Advances in Supercapacitor and Supercapattery by : Mohammad Khalid

Download or read book Advances in Supercapacitor and Supercapattery written by Mohammad Khalid and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2020-12-05 with total page 414 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Advances in Supercapacitor and Supercapattery: Innovations in Energy Storage Devices provides a deep insight into energy storage systems and their applications. The first two chapters cover the detailed background, fundamental charge storage mechanism and the various types of supercapacitor. The third chapter give details about the hybrid device (Supercapattery) which comprises of battery and capacitive electrode. The main advantages of Supercapattery over batteries and supercapacitor are discussed in this chapter. The preceding three chapters cover the electrode materials used for supercapattery. The electrolyte is a major part that significantly contributes to the performance of the device. Therefore, different kinds of electrolytes and their suitability are discussed in chapter 6 and 7. The book concludes with a look at the potential applications of supercapattery, challenges and future prospective. This book is beneficial for research scientists, engineers and students who are interested in the latest developments and fundamentals of energy storage mechanism and clarifies the misleading concepts in this field. Presents the three classes of energy storage devices and clarifies the difference between between pseudocapacitor and battery grade material Covers the synthesis strategies to enhance the overall performance of the supercapacitor device (including power density) Explains the energy storage mechanism based on the fundamental concept of physics and electrochemistry

Science, Technology and Advanced Application of Supercapacitors

Author : Takaya Sato
Publisher : BoD – Books on Demand
ISBN 13 : 1789858011
Total Pages : 150 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (898 download)

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Book Synopsis Science, Technology and Advanced Application of Supercapacitors by : Takaya Sato

Download or read book Science, Technology and Advanced Application of Supercapacitors written by Takaya Sato and published by BoD – Books on Demand. This book was released on 2019-04-03 with total page 150 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Application fields of supercapacitors are expanding because they have a very large charge/discharge current density and a cycle durability of tens of thousands of cycles or more compared to secondary batteries. There are various kinds of supercapacitor: electric double layer capacitors with a relatively long history, pseudocapacitors that utilize electrochemical reactions, and the progress of hybrid capacitor technology that combines double layer capacity and electrochemical reactions. Development of electrode materials and electrolytes and new cell design for constructing devices support the performance improvement and expansion of new applied fields such as automobiles, heavy machinery, and energy harvesting. This book aims to provide engineers with the opportunity to review the latest information by integrating cutting-edge papers on science, technology, and the application of supercapacitors.

Supercapacitor Technology

Author : Inamuddin
Publisher : Materials Research Forum LLC
ISBN 13 : 1644900491
Total Pages : 273 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (449 download)

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Book Synopsis Supercapacitor Technology by : Inamuddin

Download or read book Supercapacitor Technology written by Inamuddin and published by Materials Research Forum LLC. This book was released on 2019-11-25 with total page 273 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Supercapacitors are most interesting in the area of rechargeable battery based energy storage because they offer an unbeatable power density, quick charge/discharge rates and prolonged lifetimes in comparison to batteries. The book covers inorganic, organic and gel-polymer electrolytes, electrodes and separators used in different types of supercapacitors; with emphasis on material synthesis, characterization, fundamental electrochemical properties and most promising applications. Keywords: Supercapacitors, Rechargeable Batteries, Organic Electrolytes, Inorganic Electrolytes, Gel Polymer based Supercapacitors, Redox Electrolytes, Starch-Based Electrolytes, Flexible Supercapacitors, Pseudocapacitors, Carbon Nanoarchitectures for Supercapacitors, Photo-Supercapacitors, Bimetal Oxides/Sulfides for Electrochemical Supercapacitors.

Fundamentals and Supercapacitor Applications of 2D Materials

Author : Chandra Sekhar Rout
Publisher : Elsevier
ISBN 13 : 0128219939
Total Pages : 414 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (282 download)

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Book Synopsis Fundamentals and Supercapacitor Applications of 2D Materials by : Chandra Sekhar Rout

Download or read book Fundamentals and Supercapacitor Applications of 2D Materials written by Chandra Sekhar Rout and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2021-05-10 with total page 414 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Fundamentals and Applications of Supercapacitor 2D Materials covers different aspects of supercapacitor 2D materials, including their important properties, synthesis, and recent developments in supercapacitor applications of engineered 2D materials. In addition, theoretical investigations and various types of supercapacitors based on 2D materials such as symmetric, asymmetric, flexible, and micro-supercapacitors are covered. This book is a useful resource for research scientists, engineers, and students in the fields of supercapacitors, 2D nanomaterials, and energy storage devices. Due to their sub-nanometer thickness, 2D materials have a high packing density, which is suitable for the fabrication of highly-packed energy supplier/storage devices with enhanced energy and power density. The flexibility of 2D materials, and their good mechanical properties and high packing densities, make them suitable for the development of thin, flexible, and wearable devices. Explores recent developments and looks at the importance of 2D materials in energy storage technologies Presents both the theoretical and DFT related studies Discusses the impact on performance of various operating conditions Includes a brief overview of the applications of supercapacitors in various industries, including aerospace, defense, biomedical, environmental, energy, and automotive

Materials for Supercapacitor Applications

Author : M. Aulice Scibioh
Publisher : Elsevier
ISBN 13 : 0128198591
Total Pages : 402 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (281 download)

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Book Synopsis Materials for Supercapacitor Applications by : M. Aulice Scibioh

Download or read book Materials for Supercapacitor Applications written by M. Aulice Scibioh and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2020-01-26 with total page 402 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Materials for Supercapacitor Applications provides a snapshot of the present status of this rapidly growing field. It covers motivations, innovations, ongoing breakthroughs in research and development, innovative materials, impacts, and perspectives, as well as the challenges and technical barriers to identifying an ideal material for practical applications. This comprehensive reference by electro-chemists explains concepts in materials selection and their unique applications based on their electro-chemical properties. Chemists, chemical and electrical engineers, material scientists, and research scholars and students interested in energy will benefit from this overview of many important reference points in understanding the materials used in supercapacitors. - Provides an overview of the formulation for new materials and how to characterize them for supercapacitor applications - Describes all the information on the available materials for supercapacitor applications - Outlines potential material characterization methods - Discusses perspectives and future directions of the field

Supercapacitors

Author : Francois Beguin
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 352764668X
Total Pages : 596 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (276 download)

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Book Synopsis Supercapacitors by : Francois Beguin

Download or read book Supercapacitors written by Francois Beguin and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2013-04-02 with total page 596 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Supercapacitors are a relatively new energy storage system that provides higher energy density than dielectric capacitors and higher power density than batteries. They are particularly suited to applications that require energy pulses during short periods of time, e.g., seconds or tens of seconds. They are recommended for automobiles, tramways, buses, cranes, fork-lifts, wind turbines, electricity load leveling in stationary and transportation systems, etc. Despite the technological maturity of supercapacitors, there is a lack of comprehensive literature on the topic. Many high performance materials have been developed and new scientific concepts have been introduced. Taking into account the commercial interest in these systems and the new scientific and technological developments now is the ideal time to publish this book, capturing all this new knowledge. The book starts by giving an introduction to the general principles of electrochemistry, the properties of electrochemical capacitors, and electrochemical characterization techniques. Electrical double layer capacitors and pseudocapacitors are then discussed, followed by the various electrolyte systems. Modelling, manufacture of industrial capacitors, constraints, testing, and reliability as well as applications are also covered. 'Supercapacitors - Materials, Systems, and Applications' is part of the series on Materials for Sustainable Energy and Development edited by Prof. G.Q. Max Lu. The series covers advances in materials science and innovation for renewable energy, clean use of fossil energy, and greenhouse gas mitigation and associated environmental technologies.

Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging

Author : Pascal Venet
Publisher : MDPI
ISBN 13 : 3039287141
Total Pages : 214 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (392 download)

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Book Synopsis Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging by : Pascal Venet

Download or read book Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging written by Pascal Venet and published by MDPI. This book was released on 2020-04-15 with total page 214 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Electrochemical energy storage is a key element of systems in a wide range of sectors, such as electro-mobility, portable devices, and renewable energy. The energy storage systems (ESSs) considered here are batteries, supercapacitors, and hybrid components such as lithium-ion capacitors. The durability of ESSs determines the total cost of ownership, the global impacts (lifecycle) on a large portion of these applications and, thus, their viability. Understanding ESS aging is a key to optimizing their design and usability in terms of their intended applications. Knowledge of ESS aging is also essential to improve their dependability (reliability, availability, maintainability, and safety). This Special Issue includes 12 research papers and 1 review article focusing on battery, supercapacitor, and hybrid capacitor aging.

Energy Storage

Author : Umakanta Sahoo
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119555515
Total Pages : 306 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (195 download)

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Book Synopsis Energy Storage by : Umakanta Sahoo

Download or read book Energy Storage written by Umakanta Sahoo and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2021-08-24 with total page 306 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: ENERGY STORAGE Written and edited by a team of well-known and respected experts in the field, this new volume on energy storage presents the state-of-the-art developments and challenges in the field of renewable energy systems for sustainability and scalability for engineers, researchers, academicians, industry professionals, consultants, and designers. The world’s energy landscape is very complex. Fossil fuels, especially because of hydraulic fracturing, are still a mainstay of global energy production, but renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, and others, are increasing in importance for global energy sustainability. Experts and non-experts agree that the next game-changer in this area will be energy storage. Energy storage is crucial for continuous operation of power plants and can supplement basic power generation sources over a stand-alone system. It can enhance capacity and leads to greater security, including continuous electricity supply and other applications. A dependable energy storage system not only guarantees that the grid will not go down, but also increases efficacy and efficiency of any energy system. This groundbreaking new volume in this forward-thinking series addresses all of these issues, laying out the latest advances and addressing the most serious current concerns in energy storage. Whether for the veteran engineer or the student, this latest volume in the series, “Advances in Renewable Energy,” is a must-have for any library. This outstanding new volume: Is practically oriented and provides new concepts and designs for energy storage systems, offering greater benefit to the researcher, student, and engineer Offers a comprehensive coverage of energy storage system design, which is also useful for engineers and other professionals who are working in the field of solar energy, biomass, polygeneration, cooling, and process heat Filled with workable examples and designs that are helpful for practical applications, also offers a thorough, novel case study on hybrid energy systems with storage Is useful as a textbook for researchers, students, and faculty for understanding new ideas in this rapidly emerging field

Flexible Supercapacitor Nanoarchitectonics

Author : Inamuddin
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119711452
Total Pages : 674 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (197 download)

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Book Synopsis Flexible Supercapacitor Nanoarchitectonics by : Inamuddin

Download or read book Flexible Supercapacitor Nanoarchitectonics written by Inamuddin and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2021-06-29 with total page 674 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The 21 chapters in this book presents a comprehensive overview of flexible supercapacitors using engineering nanoarchitectures mediated by functional nanomaterials and polymers as electrodes, electrolytes, and separators, etc. for advanced energy applications. The various aspects of flexible supercapacitors, including capacitor electrochemistry, evaluating parameters, operating conditions, characterization techniques, different types of electrodes, electrolytes, and flexible substrates are covered. This is probably the first book of its type which systematically describes the recent developments and progress in flexible supercapacitor technology, and will be very helpful for generating new and innovative ideas in the field of energy storage material for wearable/flexible industry applications.

Materials Development for Active/Passive Components of a Supercapacitor

Author : Aneeya K. Samantara
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 9811072639
Total Pages : 55 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (11 download)

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Book Synopsis Materials Development for Active/Passive Components of a Supercapacitor by : Aneeya K. Samantara

Download or read book Materials Development for Active/Passive Components of a Supercapacitor written by Aneeya K. Samantara and published by Springer. This book was released on 2017-11-28 with total page 55 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This brief deals with various forms of supercapacitors starting from traditional carbon based supercapacitors to advanced next generation hybrid supercapacitors. The primary focus is to investigate the successive evolution in the core components of a typical supercapacitor which will bring significant observations regarding their feasibility and overall impact on the charge storage capacity so as to reach at par with the current battery technology. The authors present a critical review of the current collectors, electrode materials and electrolytic components which have distinctive impact on both the power and energy density of a supercapacitor. Emerging trends in the fabrication of hybrid supercapacitor technology bring together the exceptional power density of a double layer capacitor and energy density of a rechargeable battery, which promises a brighter future for the electrical energy storage system.

Handbook of Supercapacitor Materials

Author : Rajender Boddula
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 3527346872
Total Pages : 356 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (273 download)

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Book Synopsis Handbook of Supercapacitor Materials by : Rajender Boddula

Download or read book Handbook of Supercapacitor Materials written by Rajender Boddula and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2021-12-20 with total page 356 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Introduction to Electromagnetic Waves with Maxwell???s Equations Discover an innovative and fresh approach to teaching classical electromagnetics at a foundational level Introduction to Electromagnetic Waves with Maxwell???s Equations delivers an accessible and practical approach to teaching the well-known topics all electromagnetics instructors must include in their syllabus. Based on the author???s decades of experience teaching the subject, the book is carefully tuned to be relevant to an audience of engineering students who have already been exposed to the basic curricula of linear algebra and multivariate calculus. Forming the backbone of the book, Maxwell???s equations are developed step-by-step in consecutive chapters, while related electromagnetic phenomena are discussed simultaneously. The author presents accompanying mathematical tools alongside the material provided in the book to assist students with retention and comprehension. The book contains over 100 solved problems and examples with stepwise solutions offered alongside them. An accompanying website provides readers with additional problems and solutions. Readers will also benefit from the inclusion of: A thorough introduction to preliminary concepts in the field, including scalar and vector fields, cartesian coordinate systems, basic vector operations, orthogonal coordinate systems, and electrostatics, magnetostatics, and electromagnetics An exploration of Gauss??? Law, including integral forms, differential forms, and boundary conditions A discussion of Ampere???s Law, including integral and differential forms and Stoke???s Theorem An examination of Faraday???s Law, including integral and differential forms and the Lorentz Force Law Perfect for third- and fourth-year undergraduate students in electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, applied maths, physics, and computer science, Introduction to Electromagnetic Waves with Maxwell???s Equations will also earn a place in the libraries of graduate and postgraduate students in any STEM program with applications in electromagnetics.

Supercapacitors

Author : Cindy D. Mullan
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781633210202
Total Pages : 231 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (12 download)

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Book Synopsis Supercapacitors by : Cindy D. Mullan

Download or read book Supercapacitors written by Cindy D. Mullan and published by . This book was released on 2014-06-14 with total page 231 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Electrochemical Capacitors (ECs) are a class of energy storage device that fill the gap between high energy density batteries and high-power-density electrostatic capacitors. ECs show shorter charge/discharge time and higher power density compared to batteries. However, to use ECs as alternatives to batteries, a significant increase in energy density is required. Although critical to the U.S.'s energy future, development of ECs has been hindered by the lack of cost-effective electrode materials that can store more energy. As a cheaper alternative transition metal, manganese (Mn) is abundant and environmentally-friendly. Manganese oxide shows theoretical capacitance of ~ 800 F g-1, which is comparable to that of RuO2. However, owing to low electronic and ionic conductance, manganese oxide powder exhibits much lower specific capacitances. This book discusses studies of charge-storage mechanism of manganese oxide nanomaterials for ECs. It also discusses sustainable electrode materials made from electrospun alkali lignin-based carbon nanofibers for high performacen supercapacitors; new strategies for the improvement of SC energy density by covalent and non-covalent addition of qunones of carbon surfaces; maganese dioxide based SCs; supercapacitors test methods; and hydrogenated barium titanate films and their potential for integrated SCs.

Micro Energy Harvesting

Author : Danick Briand
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 3527319026
Total Pages : 492 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (273 download)

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Book Synopsis Micro Energy Harvesting by : Danick Briand

Download or read book Micro Energy Harvesting written by Danick Briand and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2015-06-22 with total page 492 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With its inclusion of the fundamentals, systems and applications, this reference provides readers with the basics of micro energy conversion along with expert knowledge on system electronics and real-life microdevices. The authors address different aspects of energy harvesting at the micro scale with a focus on miniaturized and microfabricated devices. Along the way they provide an overview of the field by compiling knowledge on the design, materials development, device realization and aspects of system integration, covering emerging technologies, as well as applications in power management, energy storage, medicine and low-power system electronics. In addition, they survey the energy harvesting principles based on chemical, thermal, mechanical, as well as hybrid and nanotechnology approaches. In unparalleled detail this volume presents the complete picture -- and a peek into the future -- of micro-powered microsystems.

Mesoporous Materials for Advanced Energy Storage and Conversion Technologies

Author : San Ping Jiang
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1315351552
Total Pages : 511 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (153 download)

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Book Synopsis Mesoporous Materials for Advanced Energy Storage and Conversion Technologies by : San Ping Jiang

Download or read book Mesoporous Materials for Advanced Energy Storage and Conversion Technologies written by San Ping Jiang and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2017-05-25 with total page 511 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Innovation through specific and rational design and functionalization has led to the development of a wide range of mesoporous materials with varying morphologies (hexagonal, cubic, rod-like), structures (silicates, carbons, metal oxides), and unique functionalities (doping, acid functionalization) that currently makes this field one of the most exciting in materials science and energy applications. This book focuses primarily on the rapid progress in their application in energy conversion and storage technologies, including supercapacitor, Li-ion battery, fuel cells, solar cells, and photocatalysis (water splitting) and will serve as a valuable reference for researchers in the field

Advances in Battery Manufacturing, Service, and Management Systems

Author : Jingshan Li
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119056497
Total Pages : 418 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (19 download)

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Book Synopsis Advances in Battery Manufacturing, Service, and Management Systems by : Jingshan Li

Download or read book Advances in Battery Manufacturing, Service, and Management Systems written by Jingshan Li and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2016-10-24 with total page 418 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Addresses the methodology and theoretical foundation of battery manufacturing, service and management systems (BM2S2), and discusses the issues and challenges in these areas This book brings together experts in the field to highlight the cutting edge research advances in BM2S2 and to promote an innovative integrated research framework responding to the challenges. There are three major parts included in this book: manufacturing, service, and management. The first part focuses on battery manufacturing systems, including modeling, analysis, design and control, as well as economic and risk analyses. The second part focuses on information technology’s impact on service systems, such as data-driven reliability modeling, failure prognosis, and service decision making methodologies for battery services. The third part addresses battery management systems (BMS) for control and optimization of battery cells, operations, and hybrid storage systems to ensure overall performance and safety, as well as EV management. The contributors consist of experts from universities, industry research centers, and government agency. In addition, this book: Provides comprehensive overviews of lithium-ion battery and battery electrical vehicle manufacturing, as well as economic returns and government support Introduces integrated models for quality propagation and productivity improvement, as well as indicators for bottleneck identification and mitigation in battery manufacturing Covers models and diagnosis algorithms for battery SOC and SOH estimation, data-driven prognosis algorithms for predicting the remaining useful life (RUL) of battery SOC and SOH Presents mathematical models and novel structure of battery equalizers in battery management systems (BMS) Reviews the state of the art of battery, supercapacitor, and battery-supercapacitor hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) for advanced electric vehicle applications Advances in Battery Manufacturing, Services, and Management Systems is written for researchers and engineers working on battery manufacturing, service, operations, logistics, and management. It can also serve as a reference for senior undergraduate and graduate students interested in BM2S2.

Electrochemical Supercapacitors

Author : B. E. Conway
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1475730586
Total Pages : 714 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (757 download)

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Book Synopsis Electrochemical Supercapacitors by : B. E. Conway

Download or read book Electrochemical Supercapacitors written by B. E. Conway and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-04-17 with total page 714 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The first model for the distribution of ions near the surface of a metal electrode was devised by Helmholtz in 1874. He envisaged two parallel sheets of charges of opposite sign located one on the metal surface and the other on the solution side, a few nanometers away, exactly as in the case of a parallel plate capacitor. The rigidity of such a model was allowed for by Gouy and Chapman inde pendently, by considering that ions in solution are subject to thermal motion so that their distribution from the metal surface turns out diffuse. Stern recognized that ions in solution do not behave as point charges as in the Gouy-Chapman treatment, and let the center of the ion charges reside at some distance from the metal surface while the distribution was still governed by the Gouy-Chapman view. Finally, in 1947, D. C. Grahame transferred the knowledge of the struc ture of electrolyte solutions into the model of a metal/solution interface, by en visaging different planes of closest approach to the electrode surface depending on whether an ion is solvated or interacts directly with the solid wall. Thus, the Gouy-Chapman-Stern-Grahame model of the so-called electrical double layer was born, a model that is still qualitatively accepted, although theoreti cians have introduced a number of new parameters of which people were not aware 50 years ago.