U. S. Stake in a Democratic Russia

Download U. S. Stake in a Democratic Russia PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Forgotten Books
ISBN 13 : 9781330337851
Total Pages : 79 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (378 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis U. S. Stake in a Democratic Russia by : United States; Congress; House; Committee on Foreign Affairs; Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East

Download or read book U. S. Stake in a Democratic Russia written by United States; Congress; House; Committee on Foreign Affairs; Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East and published by Forgotten Books. This book was released on 2015-06-16 with total page 79 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Excerpt from U. S. Stake in a Democratic Russia The subcommittees met, pursuant to call, at 2 p.m. in room 2200, Rayburn House Office Building, Hon. Tom Lantos (chairman of the Subcommittee on International Security, International Organizations and Human Rights) presiding. Mr. Lantos. The subcommittees will please come to order. Today the Subcommittee on International Security, International Organizations and Human Rights and the Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East will consider the U.S. stake in a democratic Russia. One does not need to underscore that this is a rather timely hearing. It had been scheduled many, many weeks ago, and we are delighted that these outstanding witnesses are here today to tell us and the American people their view of this paramount issue. We will address the American interest in democratic political development and market-oriented economic reform in Russia, as well as what policies our government should pursue to encourage democratization there. These critical questions involve decisions we in the Congress will be required to make involving U.S. financial assistance and many other kinds of aid. It is important that we have a clear understanding of what our interests are in a democratic and market-oriented Russia, as well as the kinds of policies we need to pursue in helping the development of democracy in that country. Some of us feel that critical months, maybe a year-and-a-half, were wasted at a time when assistance, involvement, participation could have made the chances of democratic government's survival in Russia far greater. Our witnesses today are extraordinarily well qualified to assist us in making these determinations. About the Publisher Forgotten Books publishes hundreds of thousands of rare and classic books. Find more at www.forgottenbooks.com This book is a reproduction of an important historical work. Forgotten Books uses state-of-the-art technology to digitally reconstruct the work, preserving the original format whilst repairing imperfections present in the aged copy. In rare cases, an imperfection in the original, such as a blemish or missing page, may be replicated in our edition. We do, however, repair the vast majority of imperfections successfully; any imperfections that remain are intentionally left to preserve the state of such historical works.

U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia

Download U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 76 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (121 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia by : United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East

Download or read book U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia written by United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East and published by . This book was released on 1993 with total page 76 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia, Joint Hearing, Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, 103rd Congress, First Session

Download U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia, Joint Hearing, Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, 103rd Congress, First Session PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (111 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia, Joint Hearing, Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, 103rd Congress, First Session by :

Download or read book U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia, Joint Hearing, Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, 103rd Congress, First Session written by and published by . This book was released on with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

U. S. Stake in a Democratic Russia (Classic Reprint)

Download U. S. Stake in a Democratic Russia (Classic Reprint) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Forgotten Books
ISBN 13 : 9780483354135
Total Pages : 78 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (541 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis U. S. Stake in a Democratic Russia (Classic Reprint) by : United States Congress House Co East

Download or read book U. S. Stake in a Democratic Russia (Classic Reprint) written by United States Congress House Co East and published by Forgotten Books. This book was released on 2018-01-18 with total page 78 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Excerpt from U. S. Stake in a Democratic Russia The subcommittees met, pursuant to call, at 2 pm. In room 2200, Ra burn House Office Building, Hon. Tom Lantos (chairman of the Subcommittee on International Security, International Organiza tions and Human Rights) presiding. About the Publisher Forgotten Books publishes hundreds of thousands of rare and classic books. Find more at www.forgottenbooks.com This book is a reproduction of an important historical work. Forgotten Books uses state-of-the-art technology to digitally reconstruct the work, preserving the original format whilst repairing imperfections present in the aged copy. In rare cases, an imperfection in the original, such as a blemish or missing page, may be replicated in our edition. We do, however, repair the vast majority of imperfections successfully; any imperfections that remain are intentionally left to preserve the state of such historical works.

U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia

Download U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 76 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia by : United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East

Download or read book U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia written by United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East and published by . This book was released on 1993 with total page 76 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia

Download U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 67 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (16 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia by : United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East

Download or read book U.S. Stake in a Democratic Russia written by United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East and published by . This book was released on 1993 with total page 67 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

The End of Democracy?

Download The End of Democracy? PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Simon and Schuster
ISBN 13 : 1682451518
Total Pages : 250 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (824 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The End of Democracy? by : Douglas E. Schoen

Download or read book The End of Democracy? written by Douglas E. Schoen and published by Simon and Schuster. This book was released on 2020-10-06 with total page 250 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: WARNING: IMMEDIATE GLOBAL THREAT TO ALL DEMOCRATIC NATIONS BY THE CHINA-RUSSIA AXIS America’s future has never seemed more uncertain. Our politics are dysfunctional; our cultural cohesion is a thing of the past; our institutions have lost legitimacy; and our identity as Americans seems increasingly subordinate to tribal or ideological identities. Overhanging all these issues is a loss of confidence in democracy itself, both in America and around the world, and the concomitant rise of authoritarianism as a viable model of governance in the eyes of millions. At the center of this story are two nations—Russia and China—that together stand as a profound challenge to the American and Western future, and to the future of democracy and human rights around the globe. As America unravels, China and Russia have taken every opportunity to expand their opportunities and consolidate their gains. If the United States is to prevail in this struggle, our efforts must begin with a better understanding of our determined adversaries in Beijing and Moscow—and of how their successes have emboldened the cause of authoritarianism around the world, to the detriment of free societies and free people.

Democracy Derailed in Russia

Download Democracy Derailed in Russia PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1139446851
Total Pages : 466 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (394 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Democracy Derailed in Russia by : M. Steven Fish

Download or read book Democracy Derailed in Russia written by M. Steven Fish and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2005-08-29 with total page 466 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Why has democracy failed to take root in Russia? After shedding the shackles of Soviet rule, some countries in the postcommunist region undertook lasting democratization. Yet Russia did not. Russia experienced dramatic political breakthroughs in the late 1980s and early 1990s, but it subsequently failed to maintain progress toward democracy. In this book, M. Steven Fish offers an explanation for the direction of regime change in post-Soviet Russia. Relying on cross-national comparative analysis as well as on in-depth field research in Russia, Fish shows that Russia's failure to democratize has three causes: too much economic reliance on oil, too little economic liberalization, and too weak a national legislature. Fish's explanation challenges others that have attributed Russia's political travails to history, political culture, or to 'shock therapy' in economic policy. The book offers a theoretically original and empirically rigorous explanation for one of the most pressing political problems of our time.

The Apprentice

Download The Apprentice PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : HarperCollins
ISBN 13 : 0062803727
Total Pages : 480 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (628 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Apprentice by : Greg Miller

Download or read book The Apprentice written by Greg Miller and published by HarperCollins. This book was released on 2018-10-02 with total page 480 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From two-time Pulitzer Prize–winning Washington Post national security reporter Greg Miller, the truth about Vladimir Putin’s covert attempt to destroy Hillary Clinton and help Donald Trump win the presidency, its possible connections to the Trump campaign, Robert Mueller’s ensuing investigation of the president and those close to him, and the mystery of Trump’s steadfast allegiance to Putin. It has been called the political crime of the century: a foreign government, led by a brutal authoritarian leader, secretly interfering with the American presidential election to help elect the candidate of its choice. Now two-time Pulitzer Prize–winning Washington Post national security reporter Greg Miller investigates the truth about the Kremlin’s covert attempt to destroy Hillary Clinton and help Donald Trump win the presidency, Trump’s steadfast allegiance to Vladimir Putin, and Robert Mueller’s ensuing investigation of the president and those close to him. Based on interviews with hundreds of people in Trump’s inner circle, current and former government officials, individuals with close ties to the White House, members of the law enforcement and intelligence communities, foreign officials, and confidential documents, The Apprentice offers striking new information about: the hacking of the Democrats by Russian intelligence; Russian hijacking of Facebook and Twitter; National Security Adviser Michael Flynn’s hidden communications with the Russians; the attempt by Jared Kushner, Trump’s son-in-law, to create a secret back channel to Moscow using Russian diplomatic facilities; Trump’s disclosure to Russian officials of highly classified information about Israeli intelligence operations; Trump’s battles with the CIA and the FBI and fierce clashes within the West Wing; Trump’s efforts to enlist the director of national intelligence and the director of the National Security Agency to push back against the FBI’s investigation of his campaign; the mysterious Trump Tower meeting; the firing of FBI Director James Comey; the appointment of Mueller and the investigation that has followed; the tumultuous skirmishing within Trump’s legal camp; and Trump’s jaw-dropping behavior in Helsinki. Deeply reported and masterfully told, The Apprentice is essential reading for anyone trying to understand Vladimir Putin’s secret operation, its catastrophic impact, and the nature of betrayal.

Rigged

Download Rigged PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Vintage
ISBN 13 : 059308196X
Total Pages : 385 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (93 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Rigged by : David Shimer

Download or read book Rigged written by David Shimer and published by Vintage. This book was released on 2021-10-05 with total page 385 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The definitive history of the covert struggle between Russia and America to influence elections, why the threat to American democracy is greater than ever, and what we can do about it. This is "the first book to put the story of Russian interference into a broader context.... Extraordinary and gripping" (The New York Times Book Review). Russia's interference in the 2016 elections marked only the latest chapter of a hidden and revelatory history. In Rigged, David Shimer tells the sweeping story of covert electoral interference past and present. He exposes decades of secret operations—by the KGB, the CIA, and Vladimir Putin's Russia—to shape electoral outcomes, melding deep historical research with groundbreaking interviews with more than 130 key players, from leading officials in both the Trump and Obama administrations to CIA and NSA directors to a former KGB general. Throughout history and in 2016, both Russian and American operations achieved their greatest success by influencing the way voters think, rather than tampering with actual vote tallies. Understanding 2016 as one battle in a much longer war is essential to comprehending the critical threat currently posed to America's electoral sovereignty and how to defend against it. Illuminating how the lessons of the past can be used to protect our democracy in the future, Rigged is an essential book for readers of every political persuasion.

The Tragedy of Russia's Reforms

Download The Tragedy of Russia's Reforms PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : US Institute of Peace Press
ISBN 13 : 9781929223060
Total Pages : 772 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (23 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Tragedy of Russia's Reforms by : Peter Reddaway

Download or read book The Tragedy of Russia's Reforms written by Peter Reddaway and published by US Institute of Peace Press. This book was released on 2001 with total page 772 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Examines the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the birth of the Russian state, focusing on Yeltsin's disastrous policies, which brought on an economic collapse almost twice as severe as America's Great Depression.

Ill Winds

Download Ill Winds PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Penguin
ISBN 13 : 0525560645
Total Pages : 386 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (255 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Ill Winds by : Larry Diamond

Download or read book Ill Winds written by Larry Diamond and published by Penguin. This book was released on 2020-04-14 with total page 386 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: *Shortlisted for the 2020 Arthur Ross Book Award* From America’s leading scholar of democracy, a personal, passionate call to action against the rising authoritarianism that challenges our world order—and the very value of liberty Larry Diamond has made it his life's work to secure democracy's future by understanding its past and by advising dissidents fighting autocracy around the world. Deeply attuned to the cycles of democratic expansion and decay that determine the fates of nations, he watched with mounting unease as illiberal rulers rose in Hungary, Poland, Turkey, the Philippines, and beyond, while China and Russia grew increasingly bold and bullying. Then, with Trump's election at home, the global retreat from freedom spread from democracy's margins to its heart. Ill Winds' core argument is stark: the defense and advancement of democratic ideals relies on U.S. global leadership. If we do not reclaim our traditional place as the keystone of democracy, today's authoritarian swell could become a tsunami, providing an opening for Vladimir Putin, Xi Jinping, and their admirers to turn the twenty-first century into a dark time of despotism. We are at a hinge in history, between a new era of tyranny and an age of democratic renewal. Free governments can defend their values; free citizens can exercise their rights. We can make the internet safe for liberal democracy, exploit the soft, kleptocratic underbelly of dictatorships, and revive America's degraded democracy. Ill Winds offers concrete, deeply informed suggestions to fight polarization, reduce the influence of money in politics, and make every vote count. In 2020, freedom's last line of defense still remains "We the people."

The Future Is History

Download The Future Is History PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Penguin
ISBN 13 : 159463453X
Total Pages : 530 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (946 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Future Is History by : Masha Gessen

Download or read book The Future Is History written by Masha Gessen and published by Penguin. This book was released on 2017-10-03 with total page 530 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: WINNER OF THE 2017 NATIONAL BOOK AWARD IN NONFICTION FINALIST FOR THE NATIONAL BOOK CRITICS CIRCLE AWARDS WINNER OF THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY'S HELEN BERNSTEIN BOOK AWARD NAMED A BEST BOOK OF 2017 BY THE NEW YORK TIMES BOOK REVIEW, LOS ANGELES TIMES, WASHINGTON POST, BOSTON GLOBE, SEATTLE TIMES, CHRISTIAN SCIENCE MONITOR, NEWSWEEK, PASTE, and POP SUGAR The essential journalist and bestselling biographer of Vladimir Putin reveals how, in the space of a generation, Russia surrendered to a more virulent and invincible new strain of autocracy. Award-winning journalist Masha Gessen's understanding of the events and forces that have wracked Russia in recent times is unparalleled. In The Future Is History, Gessen follows the lives of four people born at what promised to be the dawn of democracy. Each of them came of age with unprecedented expectations, some as the children and grandchildren of the very architects of the new Russia, each with newfound aspirations of their own--as entrepreneurs, activists, thinkers, and writers, sexual and social beings. Gessen charts their paths against the machinations of the regime that would crush them all, and against the war it waged on understanding itself, which ensured the unobstructed reemergence of the old Soviet order in the form of today's terrifying and seemingly unstoppable mafia state. Powerful and urgent, The Future Is History is a cautionary tale for our time and for all time.

Kompromat

Download Kompromat PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Prometheus Books
ISBN 13 : 1633884309
Total Pages : 330 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (338 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Kompromat by : Jeff Pegues

Download or read book Kompromat written by Jeff Pegues and published by Prometheus Books. This book was released on 2018-07-10 with total page 330 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A timely and essential book from the CBS correspondent who has led their coverage of Russia election interference and the FBI counterintelligence investigation into whether the Trump Campaign coordinated with the Russians. In this compelling account of how the Russians hacked the 2016 election, CBS News Justice and Homeland Security Correspondent Jeff Pegues reveals how far the Kremlin poked into voter databases and why it happened. He also investigates the steps taken to shore up election systems in states across the country ahead of the 2018 midterm and indeed the 2020 Presidential election. Based on exclusive interviews with officials from the FBI, Department of Homeland Security, and cybersecurity experts, Pegues takes readers behind the scenes and into the minds of investigators following the case. He delves into the shadowy world of Russian spies, unraveling the complicated web of contacts between Russian operatives and Trump representatives during the campaign. In one chapter, he focuses on Valeri Gerasimov, widely believed to be the mastermind behind a Russian cyber strategy designed to influence and disrupt democracies. Evidence is presented showing that the Russians infiltrated not only Democratic Party computer networks in the US, but networks in the Ukraine and Europe as well. Consulting with representatives of top cyber security firms, the author discusses what states are doing to protect voting systems in the next midterm elections and beyond. Fascinating and chilling at the same time, Kompromat opens a window into the murky world of espionage, digital warfare, and a newly aggressive Russia brazenly inserting itself into U.S. politics.

War with Russia?

Download War with Russia? PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Simon and Schuster
ISBN 13 : 1510745823
Total Pages : 403 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (17 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis War with Russia? by : Stephen F. Cohen

Download or read book War with Russia? written by Stephen F. Cohen and published by Simon and Schuster. This book was released on 2018-11-27 with total page 403 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Is America in a new Cold War with Russia? How does a new Cold War affect the safety and security of the United States? Does Vladimir Putin really want to destabilize the West? What should Donald Trump and America’s allies do? America is in a new Cold War with Russia even more dangerous than the one the world barely survived in the twentieth century. The Soviet Union is gone, but the two nuclear superpowers are again locked in political and military confrontations, now from Ukraine to Syria. All of this is exacerbated by Washington’s war-like demonizing of the Kremlin leadership and by Russiagate’s unprecedented allegations. US mainstream media accounts are highly selective and seriously misleading. American “disinformation,” not only Russian, is a growing peril. In War With Russia?, Stephen F. Cohen—the widely acclaimed historian of Soviet and post-Soviet Russia—gives readers a very different, dissenting narrative of this more dangerous new Cold War from its origins in the 1990s, the actual role of Vladimir Putin, and the 2014 Ukrainian crisis to Donald Trump’s election and today’s unprecedented Russiagate allegations. Topics include: Distorting Russia US Follies and Media Malpractices 2016 The Obama Administration Escalates Military Confrontation With Russia Was Putin’s Syria Withdrawal Really A “Surprise”? Trump vs. Triumphalism Has Washington Gone Rogue? Blaming Brexit on Putin and Voters Washington Warmongers, Moscow Prepares Trump Could End the New Cold War The Real Enemies of US Security Kremlin-Baiting President Trump Neo-McCarthyism Is Now Politically Correct Terrorism and Russiagate Cold-War News Not “Fit to Print” Has NATO Expansion Made Anyone Safer? Why Russians Think America Is Attacking Them How Washington Provoked—and Perhaps Lost—a New Nuclear-Arms Race Russia Endorses Putin, The US and UK Condemn Him (Again) Russophobia Sanction Mania Cohen’s views have made him, it is said, “America’s most controversial Russia expert.” Some say this to denounce him, others to laud him as a bold, highly informed critic of US policies and the dangers they have helped to create. War With Russia? gives readers a chance to decide for themselves who is right: are we living, as Cohen argues, in a time of unprecedented perils at home and abroad?

Boris Yeltsin and Russia's Democratic Transformation

Download Boris Yeltsin and Russia's Democratic Transformation PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9780295995816
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (958 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Boris Yeltsin and Russia's Democratic Transformation by : Herbert J. Ellison

Download or read book Boris Yeltsin and Russia's Democratic Transformation written by Herbert J. Ellison and published by . This book was released on 2015-08-17 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Boris Yeltsin is one of modern history's most dynamic and underappreciated figures. In this vivid, analytical masterwork, Herbert J. Ellison establishes Yeltsin as the principal leader and defender of Russia's democratic revolution - the very embodiment of Russia's fragile new liberties, including the evolving respect for the rule of law and private property as well as core freedoms of speech, religion, press, and political association. In 1987 President Mikhail Gorbachev expelled Boris Yeltsin from his team of reform politicians, but Yeltsin rebounded from this potentially devastating setback to become the leader of the Russian democratic movement. He created a new office of Russian president, to which he was elected; designed a democratic constitution for the Soviet Union that precipitated a coup attempt by traditionalist communist leaders; granted independence to the nations of the Soviet Union; and replaced Communist Party rule with democracy and the socialist economy with a market economy. In a short period, he had succeeded in becoming the first popularly elected leader in a thousand years of Russian history. He had blocked violent attempts at counter-revolution and overcome powerful resistance to his reform program. His achievements rank among the most extraordinary feats of political leadership in the twentieth century.

The Estate Origins of Democracy in Russia

Download The Estate Origins of Democracy in Russia PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1009080393
Total Pages : 497 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (9 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Estate Origins of Democracy in Russia by : Tomila V. Lankina

Download or read book The Estate Origins of Democracy in Russia written by Tomila V. Lankina and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2021-12-16 with total page 497 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A devastating challenge to the idea of communism as a 'great leveller', this extraordinarily original, rigorous, and ambitious book debunks Marxism-inspired accounts of its equalitarian consequences. It is the first study systematically to link the genesis of the 'bourgeoisie-cum-middle class' – Imperial, Soviet, and post-communist – to Tzarist estate institutions which distinguished between nobility, clergy, the urban merchants and meshchane, and peasants. It demonstrates how the pre-communist bourgeoisie, particularly the merchant and urban commercial strata but also the high human capital aristocracy and clergy, survived and adapted in Soviet Russia. Under both Tzarism and communism, the estate system engendered an educated, autonomous bourgeoisie and professional class, along with an oppositional public sphere, and persistent social cleavages that continue to plague democratic consensus. This book also shows how the middle class, conventionally bracketed under one generic umbrella, is often two-pronged in nature – one originating among the educated estates of feudal orders, and the other fabricated as part of state-induced modernization.