The Effects Of Chromosomal Composition And Hormonal Influences On Shaping Sex Differences In The Developing Mammalian Brain

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The Effects of Chromosomal Composition and Hormonal Influences on Shaping Sex Differences in the Developing Mammalian Brain

Author : Matthew Scott Bramble
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 149 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (17 download)

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Book Synopsis The Effects of Chromosomal Composition and Hormonal Influences on Shaping Sex Differences in the Developing Mammalian Brain by : Matthew Scott Bramble

Download or read book The Effects of Chromosomal Composition and Hormonal Influences on Shaping Sex Differences in the Developing Mammalian Brain written by Matthew Scott Bramble and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page 149 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The mechanisms by which sex differences in the mammalian brain arise are poorly understood, but are influenced by a combination of underlying genetic differences and gonadal hormone exposure. Using a mouse embryonic neural stem cell (eNSC) model to understand early events contributing to sexually dimorphic brain development, we identified novel interactions between chromosomal sex and hormonal exposure that are instrumental to early brain sex differences. RNA-sequencing identified 103 transcripts that were differentially expressed between XX and XY eNSCs at baseline (FDR=0.10). Treatment with testosterone-propionate (TP) reveals sex-specific gene expression changes, causing 2854 and 792 transcripts to become differentially expressed on XX and XY genetic backgrounds respectively. These findings indicate that testosterone exposure on XX cells have a more robust effect with regards to altering gene expression. It was also found that by exposing XX eNSCs to TP, 42% (43/103) of the original 103 basal sex differences that existed became masculinized and shifted towards a XY typical gene expression pattern. We also determined that 25% (26/103) of basal sex differences were actually feminized in an XY background post-TP. These alteration in gene expression post-TP exposure were determine to require functional androgen receptor (AR), as AR knockout (ARKO) eNSCs did not show differential expression of select genes in the presence of TP. Within the TP responsive transcripts, there was enrichment for genes which function as epigenetic regulators that affect both histone modifications and DNA methylation patterning, specifically Tet proteins, known to function as a DNA demethylases. We observed that TP caused a global decrease in 5-methylcytosine abundance in both sexes, a transmissible effect that was maintained in cellular progeny. Like gene expression, alteration in DNA methylation function downstream of AR activation, with ARKO lines showing no significant androgen induced DNA de-methylation. Additionally, we determined that TP was associated with residue-specific alterations in acetylation of histone tails. Collectively, these findings highlight an unknown component of androgen action on cells within the developmental CNS, and contribute to a novel mechanism of action by which early hormonal organization is initiated and maintained.

Sex and the Developing Brain

Author : Margaret McCarthy
Publisher : Biota Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1615040625
Total Pages : 111 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (15 download)

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Book Synopsis Sex and the Developing Brain by : Margaret McCarthy

Download or read book Sex and the Developing Brain written by Margaret McCarthy and published by Biota Publishing. This book was released on 2010-11-01 with total page 111 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The brains of males and females, men and women, are different—that is a fact. What is debated is how different and how important those differences are. Sex differences in the brain are determined by genetics, hormones, and experience, which in humans includes culture, society, and parental and peer expectations. The importance of nonbiological variables to sex differences in humans is paramount, making it difficult if not impossible to parse out those contributions that are truly biological. The study of animals provides us the opportunity to understand the magnitude and scope of biologically based sex differences in the brain and understanding the cellular mechanisms provides us insight into novel sources of brain plasticity. Many sex differences are established during a developmental sensitive window by differences in the hormonal milieu of males versus females. The neonatal testis produces large amounts of testosterone, which gains access to the brain and is further metabolized into active androgens and estrogens, which modify brain development. Major parameters that are influenced by hormones include neurogenesis, cell death, neurochemical phenotype, axonal and dendritic growth, and synaptogenesis. Variance in these parameters results in sex differences in the size of particular brain regions, the projections between brain regions, and the number and type of synapses within particular brain regions. The cellular mechanisms are both region and endpoint specific and invoke many surprising systems such as prostaglandins, endocannabinoids, and cell death proteins. By understanding when, why, and how sex differences in the brain are established, we may also learn the source of strong gender biases in the relative risk and severity of numerous neurological diseases and disorders of mental health, including but not limited to autism, dyslexia, attention deficit disorder, schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s, and major depressive disorder.

The Genetics and Epigenetics of Sex Differences in the Brain

Author : Negar Montakhab Ghahramani
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 219 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (847 download)

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Book Synopsis The Genetics and Epigenetics of Sex Differences in the Brain by : Negar Montakhab Ghahramani

Download or read book The Genetics and Epigenetics of Sex Differences in the Brain written by Negar Montakhab Ghahramani and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page 219 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The major drivers underlying sexually dimorphic brain development are gonadal hormones, namely testosterone (T). During the perinatal sensitive period, a time when the embryonic brain is maximally sensitive to changes in the levels of gonadal hormones, exposure to T has permanent organizing effects on the brain, the molecular basis of which is not known. One potential mechanism for the long term permanence may be DNA methylation. To examine the contribution of epigenetic mechanisms to both the establishment and maintenance of sex differences, I compared the methylomes of male, female, and female mice treated with testosterone. Methylation maps were generated for sexually dimorphic brain regions such as the striatum at postnatal day 4 (PN4) during the sensitive period and PN60 during adulthood using reduced representation bisulfite sequencing. I found that testosterone altered the methylation of a few genes during the sensitive period but a much greater number in adulthood. I next investigated whether administration of a single dose of testosterone to females on the day of birth could induce a shift in DNA methylation from a female-typical to a more male-typical pattern. The results demonstrated that the masculinizing effect of testosterone was mostly evident at PN60 but not at PN4. This observation provided a new perspective on the mechanisms underlying organizational effects of testosterone because contrary to the expectation that testosterone leaves a strong, stable imprint shortly after exposure, testosterone effects on DNA methylation were not immediately evident but emerged later. Based on these data, I concluded that sex differences in methylation are not the result of the immediate early actions of testosterone on the brain. Rather, the neural molecular patterns found in adults are conditioned by early hormonal exposures, the effects of which might emerge over a period of time. Gene Ontology analysis on the set of genes whose methylation was altered by testosterone revealed a significant enrichment of genes belonging to signaling components associated with dopamine modulation as well as movement disorders that display a male-bias. These data are consistent with striatum's role in regulation of movement. In addition to assessing the contribution of hormones to brain sexual differentiation, I also investigated the impact of sex chromosomes on sex differences in brain and behavior. To test for sex chromosome effects, I used the four core genotypes mouse model and found sex differences in expression of a subset of striatal genes caused by XX vs. XY differences in mice with the same gonadal type. Moreover, comparison of animals with different numbers of sex chromosomes in a novel mouse model of Klinefelter Syndrome (KS), the Sex Chromosome Trisomy Model, indicated that presence of an additional X chromosome and/or its interaction with the Y in XXY male mice can contribute to some of the behavioral and molecular phenotypes observed in KS. Interestingly, analysis of striatal transcriptome in KS mice revealed a feminized molecular signature in the brain of KS male mice. Such information is crucial knowledge in elucidating not only the pathophysiology of KS, but also the origin of sex differences in brain and behavior. Altogether, my work demonstrates the significance of genetics and epigenetics in the process of brain development as it relates to sex. The results presented in this dissertation suggest that (1) the sex chromosomes carry genes that could influence brain function and behavior; and (2) the long lasting effects of steroid hormones on the brain could be mediated by epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation.

Exploring the Biological Contributions to Human Health

Author : Institute of Medicine
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309132975
Total Pages : 287 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis Exploring the Biological Contributions to Human Health by : Institute of Medicine

Download or read book Exploring the Biological Contributions to Human Health written by Institute of Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2001-07-02 with total page 287 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: It's obvious why only men develop prostate cancer and why only women get ovarian cancer. But it is not obvious why women are more likely to recover language ability after a stroke than men or why women are more apt to develop autoimmune diseases such as lupus. Sex differences in health throughout the lifespan have been documented. Exploring the Biological Contributions to Human Health begins to snap the pieces of the puzzle into place so that this knowledge can be used to improve health for both sexes. From behavior and cognition to metabolism and response to chemicals and infectious organisms, this book explores the health impact of sex (being male or female, according to reproductive organs and chromosomes) and gender (one's sense of self as male or female in society). Exploring the Biological Contributions to Human Health discusses basic biochemical differences in the cells of males and females and health variability between the sexes from conception throughout life. The book identifies key research needs and opportunities and addresses barriers to research. Exploring the Biological Contributions to Human Health will be important to health policy makers, basic, applied, and clinical researchers, educators, providers, and journalists-while being very accessible to interested lay readers.

The Female Brain

Author : Louann Brizendine, MD
Publisher : Harmony
ISBN 13 : 0767928415
Total Pages : 306 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (679 download)

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Book Synopsis The Female Brain by : Louann Brizendine, MD

Download or read book The Female Brain written by Louann Brizendine, MD and published by Harmony. This book was released on 2007-08-07 with total page 306 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since Dr. Brizendine wrote The Female Brain ten years ago, the response has been overwhelming. This New York Times bestseller has been translated into more than thirty languages, has sold nearly a million copies between editions, and has most recently inspired a romantic comedy starring Whitney Cummings and Sofia Vergara. And its profound scientific understanding of the nature and experience of the female brain continues to guide women as they pass through life stages, to help men better understand the girls and women in their lives, and to illuminate the delicate emotional machinery of a love relationship. Why are women more verbal than men? Why do women remember details of fights that men can’t remember at all? Why do women tend to form deeper bonds with their female friends than men do with their male counterparts? These and other questions have stumped both sexes throughout the ages. Now, pioneering neuropsychiatrist Louann Brizendine, M.D., brings together the latest findings to show how the unique structure of the female brain determines how women think, what they value, how they communicate, and who they love. While doing research as a medical student at Yale and then as a resident and faculty member at Harvard, Louann Brizendine discovered that almost all of the clinical data in existence on neurology, psychology, and neurobiology focused exclusively on males. In response to the overwhelming need for information on the female mind, Brizendine established the first clinic in the country to study and treat women’s brain function. In The Female Brain, Dr. Brizendine distills all her findings and the latest information from the scientific community in a highly accessible book that educates women about their unique brain/body/behavior. The result: women will come away from this book knowing that they have a lean, mean, communicating machine. Men will develop a serious case of brain envy.

Brain Gender

Author : Melissa Hines
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0199731004
Total Pages : 324 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (997 download)

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Book Synopsis Brain Gender by : Melissa Hines

Download or read book Brain Gender written by Melissa Hines and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2005-04-14 with total page 324 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Do biological factors, such as gonadal hormones, determine our sexual destiny after our genes are in place? Do they make men aggressive, or women nurturing? Do they cause boys and girls to play differently or to have different interests? Do they explain differences in sexual orientation within each sex group? Do they contribute to the preponderance of men in science or women at home? Scientists working from a psychosocial perspective would answer these questions differently than those working from a behavioral neuroscience or neuroendocrinological perspective. This book brings both of these perspectives to bear on the questions, tracing the factors that influence the brain, beginning with testosterone and other hormones during prenatal life, and continuing through changing life situations and experiences that can sculpt the brain and its activity, even in adulthood. This influence has important implications for understanding the social roles of men and women in society, the different educational and emotional issues that confront males and females, the legal rights of those whose sexual orientation or gender identity do not correspond to norms, and even standards of clinical care for people born with physical intersex conditions that make it difficult to classify a person as male or female at birth. This original and accessible book will be of interest to psychologists, neuroscientists, pediatricians, and educators, as well as the general public. It is also suitable for use in graduate and undergraduate courses on the psychology of gender or on hormones and behavior.

Beyond Sex Differences

Author : Barry Keverne
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1108416853
Total Pages : 233 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (84 download)

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Book Synopsis Beyond Sex Differences by : Barry Keverne

Download or read book Beyond Sex Differences written by Barry Keverne and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2017-09-07 with total page 233 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book examines the evolutionary lead taken by the matriline in providing the intergenerational co-adaptations required for successful pregnancy.

Innate

Author : Kevin J. Mitchell
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 0691204152
Total Pages : 305 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (912 download)

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Book Synopsis Innate by : Kevin J. Mitchell

Download or read book Innate written by Kevin J. Mitchell and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2020-03-31 with total page 305 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "What makes you the way you are--and what makes each of us different from everyone else? In Innate, leading neuroscientist and popular science blogger Kevin Mitchell traces human diversity and individual differences to their deepest level: in the wiring of our brains. Deftly guiding us through important new research, including his own groundbreaking work, he explains how variations in the way our brains develop before birth strongly influence our psychology and behavior throughout our lives, shaping our personality, intelligence, sexuality, and even the way we perceive the world. We all share a genetic program for making a human brain, and the program for making a brain like yours is specifically encoded in your DNA. But, as Mitchell explains, the way that program plays out is affected by random processes of development that manifest uniquely in each person, even identical twins. The key insight of Innate is that the combination of these developmental and genetic variations creates innate differences in how our brains are wired--differences that impact all aspects of our psychology--and this insight promises to transform the way we see the interplay of nature and nurture. Innate also explores the genetic and neural underpinnings of disorders such as autism, schizophrenia, and epilepsy, and how our understanding of these conditions is being revolutionized. In addition, the book examines the social and ethical implications of these ideas and of new technologies that may soon offer the means to predict or manipulate human traits. Compelling and original, Innate will change the way you think about why and how we are who we are."--Provided by the publisher.

Molecular Biology of the Cell

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9780815332183
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (321 download)

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Book Synopsis Molecular Biology of the Cell by :

Download or read book Molecular Biology of the Cell written by and published by . This book was released on 2002 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Epigenetics of Aging

Author : Trygve O. Tollefsbol
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1441906398
Total Pages : 462 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (419 download)

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Book Synopsis Epigenetics of Aging by : Trygve O. Tollefsbol

Download or read book Epigenetics of Aging written by Trygve O. Tollefsbol and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2009-11-11 with total page 462 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Recent studies have indicated that epigenetic processes may play a major role in both cellular and organismal aging. These epigenetic processes include not only DNA methylation and histone modifications, but also extend to many other epigenetic mediators such as the polycomb group proteins, chromosomal position effects, and noncoding RNA. The topics of this book range from fundamental changes in DNA methylation in aging to the most recent research on intervention into epigenetic modifications to modulate the aging process. The major topics of epigenetics and aging covered in this book are: 1) DNA methylation and histone modifications in aging; 2) Other epigenetic processes and aging; 3) Impact of epigenetics on aging; 4) Epigenetics of age-related diseases; 5) Epigenetic interventions and aging: and 6) Future directions in epigenetic aging research. The most studied of epigenetic processes, DNA methylation, has been associated with cellular aging and aging of organisms for many years. It is now apparent that both global and gene-specific alterations occur not only in DNA methylation during aging, but also in several histone alterations. Many epigenetic alterations can have an impact on aging processes such as stem cell aging, control of telomerase, modifications of telomeres, and epigenetic drift can impact the aging process as evident in the recent studies of aging monozygotic twins. Numerous age-related diseases are affected by epigenetic mechanisms. For example, recent studies have shown that DNA methylation is altered in Alzheimer’s disease and autoimmunity. Other prevalent diseases that have been associated with age-related epigenetic changes include cancer and diabetes. Paternal age and epigenetic changes appear to have an effect on schizophrenia and epigenetic silencing has been associated with several of the progeroid syndromes of premature aging. Moreover, the impact of dietary or drug intervention into epigenetic processes as they affect normal aging or age-related diseases is becoming increasingly feasible.

Sexual Differentiation of the Brain

Author : Robert W. Goy
Publisher : MIT Press (MA)
ISBN 13 : 9780262572071
Total Pages : 223 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (72 download)

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Book Synopsis Sexual Differentiation of the Brain by : Robert W. Goy

Download or read book Sexual Differentiation of the Brain written by Robert W. Goy and published by MIT Press (MA). This book was released on 1979-12-01 with total page 223 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Investigating the relative importance of genes, hormones, and environment in the formation of sexual behavior.

Sex/gender

Author : Anne Fausto-Sterling
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 0415881455
Total Pages : 162 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (158 download)

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Book Synopsis Sex/gender by : Anne Fausto-Sterling

Download or read book Sex/gender written by Anne Fausto-Sterling and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2012 with total page 162 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Anne Fausto-Sterling's Sex/Gender is the only interdisciplinary book for undergraduate courses to explain sex and gender from a biological, social, and cultural perspective.

Hormones, Brain and Behavior

Author :
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 0128036087
Total Pages : 2494 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (28 download)

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Book Synopsis Hormones, Brain and Behavior by :

Download or read book Hormones, Brain and Behavior written by and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2016-11-09 with total page 2494 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Hormones, Brain and Behavior, Third Edition offers a state-of-the-art overview of hormonally-mediated behaviors, including an extensive discussion of the effects of hormones on insects, fish, amphibians, birds, rodents, and humans. Entries have been carefully designed to provide a valuable source of information for students and researchers in neuroendocrinology and those working in related areas, such as biology, psychology, psychiatry, and neurology. This third edition has been substantially restructured to include both foundational information and recent developments in the field. Continuing the emphasis on interdisciplinary research and practical applications, the book includes articles aligned in five main subject sections, with new chapters included on genetic and genomic techniques and clinical investigations. This reference provides unique treatment of all major vertebrate and invertebrate model systems with excellent opportunities for relating behavior to molecular genetics. The topics cover an unusual breadth (from molecules to ecophysiology), ranging from basic science to clinical research, making this reference of interest to a broad range of scientists in a variety of fields. Comprehensive and updated coverage of a rapidly growing field of research Unique treatment of all major vertebrate and invertebrate model systems with excellent opportunities for relating behavior to molecular genetics Covers an unusual breadth of topics and subject fields, ranging from molecules to ecophysiology, and from basic science to clinical research Ideal resource for interdisciplinary learning and understanding in the fields of hormones and behavior

The Hostage Brain

Author : Bruce S. McEwen
Publisher : Rockefeller Univ. Press
ISBN 13 : 9780874700565
Total Pages : 336 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (5 download)

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Book Synopsis The Hostage Brain by : Bruce S. McEwen

Download or read book The Hostage Brain written by Bruce S. McEwen and published by Rockefeller Univ. Press. This book was released on 1994 with total page 336 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Sex Determination in Vertebrates

Author :
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 0128115041
Total Pages : 394 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (281 download)

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Book Synopsis Sex Determination in Vertebrates by :

Download or read book Sex Determination in Vertebrates written by and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2019-04-16 with total page 394 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Sex Determination, Volume 134, the latest release in the Current Topics in Developmental Biology series, contains current reviews in the field of vertebrate sex determination. It covers molecular pathways of sex determination in genetic and environmental species and encompasses both sex determination of somatic lineages and commitment of germ cells to male or female fate. Chapters in this new release cover, amongst other topics, Mapping the Sox9 Enhancer Elements, Epigenetic Regulation of Sex Determination, Evolution and Management of Sex Chromosomes, Regulation of Germ Cell Sex Identity in Medaka, Control of Sex Determination in Zebrafish, Sexually Dimorphic Germ Cell Identity in Mammals, and more. Contains reviews written by leading experts in each field Includes informative figures that illustrate principle points that are useful for teaching Written in a style that is clear and simple

Sex and the Brain

Author : Gillian Einstein
Publisher : MIT Press
ISBN 13 : 0262050870
Total Pages : 853 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (62 download)

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Book Synopsis Sex and the Brain by : Gillian Einstein

Download or read book Sex and the Brain written by Gillian Einstein and published by MIT Press. This book was released on 2007-10-19 with total page 853 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A collection of foundational texts on the nature and behavioral consequences of sex differences in the brain, allowing readers to follow the development of a rapidly growing but contentious field and giving them the tools to analyze emerging scientific findings from many perspectives. This collection of foundational papers on sex differences in the brain traces the development of a much-invoked, fast-growing young field at the intersection of brain and behavior. The reader is introduced to the meaning and nature of sexual dimorphisms, the mechanisms and consequences of steroid hormone action, and the impact of the field on interpretations of sexuality and gender. Building on each other in point-counterpoint fashion, the papers tell a fascinating story of an emerging science working out its core assumptions. Experimental and theoretical papers, woven together by editor's introductions, open a window onto knowledge in the making and a vigorous debate between reductionist and pluralist interpreters. Five major sections include papers on conceptual and methodological background, central nervous system dimorphisms, mechanisms for creating dimorphisms, dimorphisms and cognition, and dimorphisms and identity. Each section builds from basic concepts to early experiments, from experimental models to humans, and from molecules to mind. Papers by such leading scholars as Arthur Arnold, Frank Beach, Anne Fausto-Sterling, Patricia Goldman-Rakic, Doreen Kimura, Simon LeVay, Bruce McEwen, Michael Merzenich, Bertram O'Malley, Geoffrey Raisman, and Dick Swaab, illustrate a rich blend of perspectives, approaches, methods, and findings. Sex and the Brain will show students how a scientific paper can be analyzed from many perspectives, and supply them with critical tools for judging a rapidly emerging science in a contentious area.

Brain Storm

Author : Rebecca M. Jordan-Young
Publisher : Harvard University Press
ISBN 13 : 0674058798
Total Pages : 409 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (74 download)

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Book Synopsis Brain Storm by : Rebecca M. Jordan-Young

Download or read book Brain Storm written by Rebecca M. Jordan-Young and published by Harvard University Press. This book was released on 2011-01-07 with total page 409 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Female and male brains are different, thanks to hormones coursing through the brain before birth. That’s taught as fact in psychology textbooks, academic journals, and bestselling books. And these hardwired differences explain everything from sexual orientation to gender identity, to why there aren’t more women physicists or more stay-at-home dads. In this compelling book, Rebecca Jordan-Young takes on the evidence that sex differences are hardwired into the brain. Analyzing virtually all published research that supports the claims of “human brain organization theory,” Jordan-Young reveals how often these studies fail the standards of science. Even if careful researchers point out the limits of their own studies, other researchers and journalists can easily ignore them because brain organization theory just sounds so right. But if a series of methodological weaknesses, questionable assumptions, inconsistent definitions, and enormous gaps between ambiguous findings and grand conclusions have accumulated through the years, then science isn’t scientific at all. Elegantly written, this book argues passionately that the analysis of gender differences deserves far more rigorous, biologically sophisticated science. “The evidence for hormonal sex differentiation of the human brain better resembles a hodge-podge pile than a solid structure...Once we have cleared the rubble, we can begin to build newer, more scientific stories about human development.”