Statistical Properties In Firms Large Scale Data

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Statistical Properties in Firms’ Large-scale Data

Author : Atushi Ishikawa
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 9811622973
Total Pages : 146 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (116 download)

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Book Synopsis Statistical Properties in Firms’ Large-scale Data by : Atushi Ishikawa

Download or read book Statistical Properties in Firms’ Large-scale Data written by Atushi Ishikawa and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-06-25 with total page 146 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This is the first book to provide a systematic description of statistical properties of large-scale financial data. Specifically, the power-law and log-normal distributions observed at a given time and their changes using time-reversal symmetry, quasi-time-reversal symmetry, Gibrat's law, and the non-Gibrat's property observed in a short-term period are derived here. The statistical properties observed over a long-term period, such as power-law and exponential growth, are also derived. These subjects have not been thoroughly discussed in the field of economics in the past, and this book is a compilation of the author's series of studies by reconstructing the data analyses published in 15 academic journals with new data. This book provides readers with a theoretical and empirical understanding of how the statistical properties observed in firms’ large-scale data are related along the time axis. It is possible to expand this discussion to understand theoretically and empirically how the statistical properties observed among differing large-scale financial data are related. This possibility provides readers with an approach to microfoundations, an important issue that has been studied in economics for many years.

Statistical Properties in Firms' Large-scale Data

Author : Atushi Ishikawa
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9789811622984
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (229 download)

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Book Synopsis Statistical Properties in Firms' Large-scale Data by : Atushi Ishikawa

Download or read book Statistical Properties in Firms' Large-scale Data written by Atushi Ishikawa and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This is the first book to provide a systematic description of statistical properties of large-scale financial data. Specifically, the power-law and log-normal distributions observed at a given time and their changes using time-reversal symmetry, quasi-time-reversal symmetry, Gibrat's law, and the non-Gibrat's property observed in a short-term period are derived here. The statistical properties observed over a long-term period, such as power-law and exponential growth, are also derived. These subjects have not been thoroughly discussed in the field of economics in the past, and this book is a compilation of the author's series of studies by reconstructing the data analyses published in 15 academic journals with new data. This book provides readers with a theoretical and empirical understanding of how the statistical properties observed in firms' large-scale data are related along the time axis. It is possible to expand this discussion to understand theoretically and empirically how the statistical properties observed among differing large-scale financial data are related. This possibility provides readers with an approach to microfoundations, an important issue that has been studied in economics for many years.

Network Theory and Agent-Based Modeling in Economics and Finance

Author : Anindya S. Chakrabarti
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 9811383197
Total Pages : 454 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (113 download)

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Book Synopsis Network Theory and Agent-Based Modeling in Economics and Finance by : Anindya S. Chakrabarti

Download or read book Network Theory and Agent-Based Modeling in Economics and Finance written by Anindya S. Chakrabarti and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2019-10-23 with total page 454 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents the latest findings on network theory and agent-based modeling of economic and financial phenomena. In this context, the economy is depicted as a complex system consisting of heterogeneous agents that interact through evolving networks; the aggregate behavior of the economy arises out of billions of small-scale interactions that take place via countless economic agents. The book focuses on analytical modeling, and on the econometric and statistical analysis of the properties emerging from microscopic interactions. In particular, it highlights the latest empirical and theoretical advances, helping readers understand economic and financial networks, as well as new work on modeling behavior using rich, agent-based frameworks. Innovatively, the book combines observational and theoretical insights in the form of networks and agent-based models, both of which have proved to be extremely valuable in understanding non-linear and evolving complex systems. Given its scope, the book will capture the interest of graduate students and researchers from various disciplines (e.g. economics, computer science, physics, and applied mathematics) whose work involves the domain of complexity theory.

Research Anthology on Big Data Analytics, Architectures, and Applications

Author : Management Association, Information Resources
Publisher : IGI Global
ISBN 13 : 1668436639
Total Pages : 1988 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (684 download)

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Book Synopsis Research Anthology on Big Data Analytics, Architectures, and Applications by : Management Association, Information Resources

Download or read book Research Anthology on Big Data Analytics, Architectures, and Applications written by Management Association, Information Resources and published by IGI Global. This book was released on 2021-09-24 with total page 1988 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Society is now completely driven by data with many industries relying on data to conduct business or basic functions within the organization. With the efficiencies that big data bring to all institutions, data is continuously being collected and analyzed. However, data sets may be too complex for traditional data-processing, and therefore, different strategies must evolve to solve the issue. The field of big data works as a valuable tool for many different industries. The Research Anthology on Big Data Analytics, Architectures, and Applications is a complete reference source on big data analytics that offers the latest, innovative architectures and frameworks and explores a variety of applications within various industries. Offering an international perspective, the applications discussed within this anthology feature global representation. Covering topics such as advertising curricula, driven supply chain, and smart cities, this research anthology is ideal for data scientists, data analysts, computer engineers, software engineers, technologists, government officials, managers, CEOs, professors, graduate students, researchers, and academicians.

Big Data Analytics in HIV/AIDS Research

Author : Al Mazari, Ali
Publisher : IGI Global
ISBN 13 : 1522532048
Total Pages : 323 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (225 download)

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Book Synopsis Big Data Analytics in HIV/AIDS Research by : Al Mazari, Ali

Download or read book Big Data Analytics in HIV/AIDS Research written by Al Mazari, Ali and published by IGI Global. This book was released on 2018-04-27 with total page 323 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With the advent of new technologies in big data science, the study of medical problems has made significant progress. Connecting medical studies and computational methods is crucial for the advancement of the medical industry. Big Data Analytics in HIV/AIDS Research provides emerging research on the development and implementation of computational techniques in big data analysis for biological and medical practices. While highlighting topics such as deep learning, management software, and molecular modeling, this publication explores the various applications of data analysis in clinical decision making. This book is a vital resource for medical practitioners, nurses, scientists, researchers, and students seeking current research on the connections between data analytics in the field of medicine.

Transactions on Large-Scale Data- and Knowledge-Centered Systems LVII

Author : Abdelkader Hameurlain
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3662701405
Total Pages : 158 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (627 download)

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Book Synopsis Transactions on Large-Scale Data- and Knowledge-Centered Systems LVII by : Abdelkader Hameurlain

Download or read book Transactions on Large-Scale Data- and Knowledge-Centered Systems LVII written by Abdelkader Hameurlain and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on with total page 158 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Internet Economics: Models, Mechanisms and Management

Author : Hans W. Gottinger
Publisher : Bentham Science Publishers
ISBN 13 : 1681085461
Total Pages : 222 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (81 download)

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Book Synopsis Internet Economics: Models, Mechanisms and Management by : Hans W. Gottinger

Download or read book Internet Economics: Models, Mechanisms and Management written by Hans W. Gottinger and published by Bentham Science Publishers. This book was released on 2017-08-28 with total page 222 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The internet represents a rapidly evolving set of technologies which is central to the development of a modern economy. Internet Economics: Models, Mechanisms and Management integrates knowledge about internet service design with economic modelling principles (pricing, cost and service models). Chapters highlight specific applications of the internet such as service provisioning, cloud computing, commerce, business security, network externalities, social media and more recent developments such as the Internet of Things (IoT), the industrial internet, data analytics and the use of big data to bring value to commercial ventures. Therefore, readers will have a conceptual and practical framework for understanding the economics of internet infrastructure and service delivery.

The Federal Statistical System: Its Vulnerability Matters More Than You Think

Author : Kenneth Prewitt
Publisher : SAGE
ISBN 13 : 1412992583
Total Pages : 241 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (129 download)

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Book Synopsis The Federal Statistical System: Its Vulnerability Matters More Than You Think by : Kenneth Prewitt

Download or read book The Federal Statistical System: Its Vulnerability Matters More Than You Think written by Kenneth Prewitt and published by SAGE. This book was released on 2010-09 with total page 241 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: How do federal statistics strengthen our nation's science as well as its policy? In this latest volume of The ANNALS, leading academics, along with key federal officials, including the president's science advisor, the chief statistician of the U.S., the director of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), the presidents of the National Academies, and the director of the Census Bureau address the argument that the statistics that the federal statistical system produces should be understood as constituting a scientific infrastructure for the empirical social sciences. Further, they see the current federal statistical system as "the best hope for bringing strong science to bear on new data sources" and "the best place to navigate unforeseen challenges in preserving the independence of statistical information from political interference." If federal statistics are the knowledge base from which policy problems and solutions emerge, it is imperative that we pay attention to the lessons they offer. Never before has this topic received this level of attention from such an array of contributors. A must read for all social scientists and policy-makers.

Frontiers in Massive Data Analysis

Author : National Research Council
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309287812
Total Pages : 191 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (92 download)

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Book Synopsis Frontiers in Massive Data Analysis by : National Research Council

Download or read book Frontiers in Massive Data Analysis written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2013-09-03 with total page 191 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Data mining of massive data sets is transforming the way we think about crisis response, marketing, entertainment, cybersecurity and national intelligence. Collections of documents, images, videos, and networks are being thought of not merely as bit strings to be stored, indexed, and retrieved, but as potential sources of discovery and knowledge, requiring sophisticated analysis techniques that go far beyond classical indexing and keyword counting, aiming to find relational and semantic interpretations of the phenomena underlying the data. Frontiers in Massive Data Analysis examines the frontier of analyzing massive amounts of data, whether in a static database or streaming through a system. Data at that scale-terabytes and petabytes-is increasingly common in science (e.g., particle physics, remote sensing, genomics), Internet commerce, business analytics, national security, communications, and elsewhere. The tools that work to infer knowledge from data at smaller scales do not necessarily work, or work well, at such massive scale. New tools, skills, and approaches are necessary, and this report identifies many of them, plus promising research directions to explore. Frontiers in Massive Data Analysis discusses pitfalls in trying to infer knowledge from massive data, and it characterizes seven major classes of computation that are common in the analysis of massive data. Overall, this report illustrates the cross-disciplinary knowledge-from computer science, statistics, machine learning, and application disciplines-that must be brought to bear to make useful inferences from massive data.

Big Data

Author : Kiran Sood
Publisher : Emerald Group Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1802626077
Total Pages : 283 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (26 download)

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Book Synopsis Big Data by : Kiran Sood

Download or read book Big Data written by Kiran Sood and published by Emerald Group Publishing. This book was released on 2022-07-19 with total page 283 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Striking a balance between the technical characteristics of the subject and the practical aspects of decision making, spanning from fraud analytics in claims management, to customer analytics, to risk analytics in solvency, the comprehensive coverage presented makes Big Data an invaluable resource for any insurance professional.

Big Data of Complex Networks

Author : Matthias Dehmer
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1315353598
Total Pages : 290 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (153 download)

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Book Synopsis Big Data of Complex Networks by : Matthias Dehmer

Download or read book Big Data of Complex Networks written by Matthias Dehmer and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2016-08-19 with total page 290 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Big Data of Complex Networks presents and explains the methods from the study of big data that can be used in analysing massive structural data sets, including both very large networks and sets of graphs. As well as applying statistical analysis techniques like sampling and bootstrapping in an interdisciplinary manner to produce novel techniques for analyzing massive amounts of data, this book also explores the possibilities offered by the special aspects such as computer memory in investigating large sets of complex networks. Intended for computer scientists, statisticians and mathematicians interested in the big data and networks, Big Data of Complex Networks is also a valuable tool for researchers in the fields of visualization, data analysis, computer vision and bioinformatics. Key features: Provides a complete discussion of both the hardware and software used to organize big data Describes a wide range of useful applications for managing big data and resultant data sets Maintains a firm focus on massive data and large networks Unveils innovative techniques to help readers handle big data Matthias Dehmer received his PhD in computer science from the Darmstadt University of Technology, Germany. Currently, he is Professor at UMIT – The Health and Life Sciences University, Austria, and the Universität der Bundeswehr München. His research interests are in graph theory, data science, complex networks, complexity, statistics and information theory. Frank Emmert-Streib received his PhD in theoretical physics from the University of Bremen, and is currently Associate professor at Tampere University of Technology, Finland. His research interests are in the field of computational biology, machine learning and network medicine. Stefan Pickl holds a PhD in mathematics from the Darmstadt University of Technology, and is currently a Professor at Bundeswehr Universität München. His research interests are in operations research, systems biology, graph theory and discrete optimization. Andreas Holzinger received his PhD in cognitive science from Graz University and his habilitation (second PhD) in computer science from Graz University of Technology. He is head of the Holzinger Group HCI-KDD at the Medical University Graz and Visiting Professor for Machine Learning in Health Informatics Vienna University of Technology.

Intellectual Property Statistics

Author : Eskil Ullberg
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3031363868
Total Pages : 194 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (313 download)

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Book Synopsis Intellectual Property Statistics by : Eskil Ullberg

Download or read book Intellectual Property Statistics written by Eskil Ullberg and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2023-10-03 with total page 194 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Patents and other intellectual property (IP) rights are increasingly part of cross-border trade in their own rights. Patent transfers and patent licensing between inventors, investors and innovators create new business strategies of cooperation in the creation of new technology – increasing the productivity in the stock of technology assets – and efficient “distribution” of these rights. The rights bundles are then used – also increasingly – in products and services being traded cross-border, furthering economic efficiency created by this cooperative strategy. Today’s international trade statistics, however, lack statistics explicitly on trade flows from ideas, based on IP rights. This book offers an idea based statistical framework to measure IP, (i.e., increasingly depends on trade in ideas) and explores ways to introduce the framework into international standards. Specifically, it offers a theory of value to measure the flows from IP and an asset view of IP to deal with allocation of resources and who owns these rights. This is then contrasted with the current way IP is treated and a “gap analysis” is used to identify what needs to change in the standards. This new framework can help develop theories, policies, practices and inform the decisions needed to better leverage the human capital formation of inventors everywhere. Praise for Intellectual Property Statistics... “In this book, Prof. Ullberg has undertaken a Herculean task – to lay out a paradigm for the collection of IP Statistics to ensure that the ... market of trade in ideas has the information and data necessary to function well. [the] volume should be viewed as a starting point, a work in progress, but an important one that could very well influence the development of this important set of data on trade in ideas. At a time when global issues ... require both new ideas and the spread of those ideas widely to help ensure both economic growth and continued global economic convergence data that helps us monitor and evaluate what is happening in trade in ideas will be extremely valuable.” – Robert Koopman, American University, Washington, DC, USA and Former Chief Economist, World Trade Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

Data Envelopment Analysis

Author : Joe Zhu
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 1489976841
Total Pages : 594 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (899 download)

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Book Synopsis Data Envelopment Analysis by : Joe Zhu

Download or read book Data Envelopment Analysis written by Joe Zhu and published by Springer. This book was released on 2016-03-22 with total page 594 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This handbook compiles state-of-the-art empirical studies and applications using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). It includes a collection of 18 chapters written by DEA experts. Chapter 1 examines the performance of CEOs of U.S. banks and thrifts. Chapter 2 describes the network operational structure of transportation organizations and the relative network data envelopment analysis model. Chapter 3 demonstrates how to use different types of DEA models to compute total-factor energy efficiency scores with an application to energy efficiency. In chapter 4, the authors explore the impact of incorporating customers' willingness to pay for service quality in benchmarking models on cost efficiency of distribution networks, and chapter 5 provides a brief review of previous applications of DEA to the professional baseball industry, followed by two detailed applications to Major League Baseball. Chapter 6 examines efficiency and productivity of U.S. property-liability (P-L) insurers using DEA, while chapter 7 presents a two-stage network DEA model that decomposes the overall efficiency of a decision-making unit into two components. Chapter 8 presents a review of the literature of DEA models for the perfoemance assessment of mutual funds, and chapter 9 discusses the management strategies formulation of the international tourist hotel industry in Taiwan. Chapter 10 presents a novel use of the two-stage network DEA to evaluate sustainable product design performances. In chapter 11 authors highlight limitations of some DEA environmental efficiency models, and chapter 12 reviews applications of DEA in secondary and tertiary education. Chapter 13 measures the relative performance of New York State school districts in the 2011-2012 academic year. Chapter 14 provides an introductory prelude to chapters 15 and 16, which both provide detailed applications of DEA in marketing. Chapter 17 then shows how to decompose a new total factor productivity index that satisfies all economically-relevant axioms from index theory with an application to U.S. agriculture. Finally, chapter 18 presents a unique study that conducts a DEA research front analysis, applying a network clustering method to group the DEA literature over the period 2000 to 2014.

Practical Business Statistics

Author : Andrew F. Siegel
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 012820026X
Total Pages : 689 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (282 download)

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Book Synopsis Practical Business Statistics by : Andrew F. Siegel

Download or read book Practical Business Statistics written by Andrew F. Siegel and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2021-11-03 with total page 689 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Practical Business Statistics, Eighth Edition, offers readers a practical, accessible approach to managerial statistics that carefully maintains, but does not overemphasize mathematical correctness. The book fosters deep understanding of both how to learn from data and how to deal with uncertainty, while promoting the use of practical computer applications. This trusted resource teaches present and future managers how to use and understand statistics without an overdose of technical detail, enabling them to better understand the concepts at hand and to interpret results. The text uses excellent examples with real world data relating to business sector functional areas such as finance, accounting, and marketing. Written in an engaging style, this timely revision is class-tested and designed to help students gain a solid understanding of fundamental statistical principles without bogging them down with excess mathematical details. - Provides users with a conceptual, realistic, and matter-of-fact approach to managerial statistics - Offers an accessible approach to teach present and future managers how to use and understand statistics without an overdose of technical detail, enabling them to better understand concepts and to interpret results - Features updated examples and images to illustrate important applied uses and current business trends - Includes robust ancillary instructional materials such as an instructor's manual, lecture slides, and data files

Big Data Science in Finance

Author : Irene Aldridge
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119602971
Total Pages : 336 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (196 download)

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Book Synopsis Big Data Science in Finance by : Irene Aldridge

Download or read book Big Data Science in Finance written by Irene Aldridge and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2021-01-08 with total page 336 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Explains the mathematics, theory, and methods of Big Data as applied to finance and investing Data science has fundamentally changed Wall Street—applied mathematics and software code are increasingly driving finance and investment-decision tools. Big Data Science in Finance examines the mathematics, theory, and practical use of the revolutionary techniques that are transforming the industry. Designed for mathematically-advanced students and discerning financial practitioners alike, this energizing book presents new, cutting-edge content based on world-class research taught in the leading Financial Mathematics and Engineering programs in the world. Marco Avellaneda, a leader in quantitative finance, and quantitative methodology author Irene Aldridge help readers harness the power of Big Data. Comprehensive in scope, this book offers in-depth instruction on how to separate signal from noise, how to deal with missing data values, and how to utilize Big Data techniques in decision-making. Key topics include data clustering, data storage optimization, Big Data dynamics, Monte Carlo methods and their applications in Big Data analysis, and more. This valuable book: Provides a complete account of Big Data that includes proofs, step-by-step applications, and code samples Explains the difference between Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) Covers vital topics in the field in a clear, straightforward manner Compares, contrasts, and discusses Big Data and Small Data Includes Cornell University-tested educational materials such as lesson plans, end-of-chapter questions, and downloadable lecture slides Big Data Science in Finance: Mathematics and Applications is an important, up-to-date resource for students in economics, econometrics, finance, applied mathematics, industrial engineering, and business courses, and for investment managers, quantitative traders, risk and portfolio managers, and other financial practitioners.

Data Analytics with Artificial Intelligence: Transforming Big Data into Valuable Information

Author : Mehmet Ali Yilbasi
Publisher : Mehmet Ali Yılbaşı
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 144 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Data Analytics with Artificial Intelligence: Transforming Big Data into Valuable Information by : Mehmet Ali Yilbasi

Download or read book Data Analytics with Artificial Intelligence: Transforming Big Data into Valuable Information written by Mehmet Ali Yilbasi and published by Mehmet Ali Yılbaşı. This book was released on 2023-06-11 with total page 144 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This ebook is a guide for anyone who wants to understand the impact of Data Analytics and Artificial Intelligence in business and explore how these technologies can be applied. Businesses should use this association correctly to extract more valuable information from large data sets, optimize their operational processes and gain competitive advantage. Throughout our book, we will try to explain the potential in Data Analytics and Artificial Intelligence with examples, practical tips and real-world applications. We will also provide resources and recommendations for our readers who want to follow developments in these areas.

Federal Statistics, Multiple Data Sources, and Privacy Protection

Author : National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309465370
Total Pages : 195 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (94 download)

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Book Synopsis Federal Statistics, Multiple Data Sources, and Privacy Protection by : National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

Download or read book Federal Statistics, Multiple Data Sources, and Privacy Protection written by National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2018-01-27 with total page 195 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The environment for obtaining information and providing statistical data for policy makers and the public has changed significantly in the past decade, raising questions about the fundamental survey paradigm that underlies federal statistics. New data sources provide opportunities to develop a new paradigm that can improve timeliness, geographic or subpopulation detail, and statistical efficiency. It also has the potential to reduce the costs of producing federal statistics. The panel's first report described federal statistical agencies' current paradigm, which relies heavily on sample surveys for producing national statistics, and challenges agencies are facing; the legal frameworks and mechanisms for protecting the privacy and confidentiality of statistical data and for providing researchers access to data, and challenges to those frameworks and mechanisms; and statistical agencies access to alternative sources of data. The panel recommended a new approach for federal statistical programs that would combine diverse data sources from government and private sector sources and the creation of a new entity that would provide the foundational elements needed for this new approach, including legal authority to access data and protect privacy. This second of the panel's two reports builds on the analysis, conclusions, and recommendations in the first one. This report assesses alternative methods for implementing a new approach that would combine diverse data sources from government and private sector sources, including describing statistical models for combining data from multiple sources; examining statistical and computer science approaches that foster privacy protections; evaluating frameworks for assessing the quality and utility of alternative data sources; and various models for implementing the recommended new entity. Together, the two reports offer ideas and recommendations to help federal statistical agencies examine and evaluate data from alternative sources and then combine them as appropriate to provide the country with more timely, actionable, and useful information for policy makers, businesses, and individuals.