Skin Permeation And Disposition Of Therapeutic And Cosmeceutical Compounds

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Skin Permeation and Disposition of Therapeutic and Cosmeceutical Compounds

Author : Kenji Sugibayashi
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 4431565264
Total Pages : 410 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (315 download)

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Book Synopsis Skin Permeation and Disposition of Therapeutic and Cosmeceutical Compounds by : Kenji Sugibayashi

Download or read book Skin Permeation and Disposition of Therapeutic and Cosmeceutical Compounds written by Kenji Sugibayashi and published by Springer. This book was released on 2017-11-28 with total page 410 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book reviews skin permeation and disposition of chemical compounds. Skin is utilized as an administration site for transdermal drug delivery systems, topical drug formulations, cosmeceuticals, and cosmetics. Their usefulness is closely related to the permeation and disposition of entrapped active ingredients through and into the skin. Skin permeation, disposition, and metabolism of chemicals are first summarized in the general introduction. Then primary topical formulations are explained in the second part, “Basic Formulations Applied to Skin”. The explanation for the active compounds and formulations are of the most important parts required to fabricate these formulations. Skin absorption of chemicals is generally much lower than oral and the other mucosal absorptions, so that skin-penetration enhancement is a key issue to have good formulations topically applied. Part 3 presents “Skin Penetration Enhancement”. In addition, Part 4, “Selection of Topically Applied Chemical Candidates”, deals with selection methods of topically applied ingredients for transdermal drug delivery systems, topical drug formulations, cosmeceuticals, and cosmetics. Parts 5 and 6, “Safety Assessment of Topically Applied Compounds“ and “Experimental Methods of Skin Permeation“, respectively, show safety issues and experimental methods for topical formulations. The final part consists of comments on therapeutic and cosmetic formulations by medical doctors and pharmacists. Their comments are especially helpful for pharmaceutical and cosmetic researchers who study dermatopharmacokinetics and topical formulations. This volume is particularly useful for those working in R&D, graduate students, and educators in the area of pharmaceutics, cosmetic sciences, dermatological sciences, pharmacology, toxicology, biopharmacy, pharmacokinetics, physical pharmacy, chemical engineering, and related fields.

Basic Fundamentals of Drug Delivery

Author :
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 0128179104
Total Pages : 812 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (281 download)

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Book Synopsis Basic Fundamentals of Drug Delivery by :

Download or read book Basic Fundamentals of Drug Delivery written by and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2018-11-30 with total page 812 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Basic Fundamentals of Drug Delivery covers the fundamental principles, advanced methodologies and technologies employed by pharmaceutical scientists, researchers and pharmaceutical industries to transform a drug candidate or new chemical entity into a final administrable drug delivery system. The book also covers various approaches involved in optimizing the therapeutic performance of a biomolecule while designing its appropriate advanced formulation. - Provides up-to-date information on translating the physicochemical properties of drugs into drug delivery systems - Explores how drugs are administered via various routes, such as orally, parenterally, transdermally or through inhalation - Contains extensive references and further reading for course and self-study

Bioactive-Loaded Nanomedicine for the Management of Health and Disease

Author : Mahfoozur Rahman
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1000565483
Total Pages : 469 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (5 download)

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Book Synopsis Bioactive-Loaded Nanomedicine for the Management of Health and Disease by : Mahfoozur Rahman

Download or read book Bioactive-Loaded Nanomedicine for the Management of Health and Disease written by Mahfoozur Rahman and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2022-12-23 with total page 469 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The new book focuses on the use of natural active substances and nutraceuticals in nano-research for improved healthcare management and applications. It explores advanced nanomaterials that can be utilized for the encapsulation of nutrients, vitamins, and phytoconstituents for the treatment of cancer, psychotic and manic disorders, and chronic inflammation, such as arthritis and psoriasis, as well as for other healthcare issues, such as skin diseases and skin care, atherosclerosis, and more. The chapters discuss the remarkable advantages of using new bioactive and nutraceutical drugs, which offer improved solubility, bioavailability, simultaneous drug delivery, safety extension, long-term delivery, better dissemination of tissue macrophages, security against toxicity, increase in pharmacological activity, and enhanced physical and chemical protection.

Nanobiotechnology in Diagnosis, Drug Delivery and Treatment

Author : Mahendra Rai
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119671795
Total Pages : 416 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (196 download)

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Book Synopsis Nanobiotechnology in Diagnosis, Drug Delivery and Treatment by : Mahendra Rai

Download or read book Nanobiotechnology in Diagnosis, Drug Delivery and Treatment written by Mahendra Rai and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2020-11-10 with total page 416 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Presents nanobiotechnology in drug delivery and disease management Featuring contributions from noted experts in the field, this book highlights recent advances in the nano-based drug delivery systems. It also covers the diagnosis and role of various nanomaterials in the management of infectious diseases and non-infectious disorders, such as cancers and other malignancies and their role in future medicine. Nanobiotechnology in Diagnosis, Drug Delivery and Treatment starts by introducing how nanotechnology has revolutionized drug delivery, diagnosis, and treatments of diseases. It then focuses on the role of various nanocomposites in diagnosis, drug delivery, and treatment of diseases like cancer, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, and many others. Next, it discusses the application of a variety of nanomaterials in the diagnosis and management of gastrointestinal tract disorders. The book explains the concept of nanotheranostics in detail and its role in effective monitoring of drug response, targeted drug delivery, enhanced drug accumulation in the target tissues, sustained as well as triggered release of drugs, and reduction in adverse effects. Other chapters cover aptamer-incorporated nanoparticle systems; magnetic nanoparticles; theranostics and vaccines; toxicological concerns of nanomaterials used in nanomedicine; and more. Provides a concise overview of state-of-the-art nanomaterials and their application like drug delivery in infectious diseases and non-infectious disorders Highlights recent advances in the nano-based drug delivery systems and role of various nanomaterials Introduces nano-based sensors which detect various pathogens Covers the use of nanodevices in diagnostics and theranostics Nanobiotechnology in Diagnosis, Drug Delivery and Treatment is an ideal book for researchers and scientists working in various disciplines such as microbiology, biotechnology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical biotechnology, pharmacology, pharmaceutics, and nanomedicine.

Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems

Author : Jonathan Hadgraft
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1135565198
Total Pages : 296 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (355 download)

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Book Synopsis Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems by : Jonathan Hadgraft

Download or read book Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems written by Jonathan Hadgraft and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2002-10-29 with total page 296 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Presents authoritative state-of-the-art discussions of the key issues pertinent to transdermal drug delivery, examining those topics necessary to enable a critical evaluation of a drug candidate's potential to be delivered across the skin; from physical chemistry and assessment of drug permeability to available enhancement technolgies, to regulator

Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems

Author : Ali Demir Sezer
Publisher : BoD – Books on Demand
ISBN 13 : 9535108107
Total Pages : 516 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (351 download)

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Book Synopsis Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems by : Ali Demir Sezer

Download or read book Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems written by Ali Demir Sezer and published by BoD – Books on Demand. This book was released on 2012-10-31 with total page 516 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This contribution book collects reviews and original articles from eminent experts working in the interdisciplinary arena of novel drug delivery systems and their uses. From their direct and recent experience, the readers can achieve a wide vision on the new and ongoing potentialities of different drug delivery systems. Since the advent of analytical techniques and capabilities to measure particle sizes in nanometer ranges, there has been tremendous interest in the use of nanoparticles for more efficient methods of drug delivery. On the other hand, this reference discusses advances in the design, optimization, and adaptation of gene delivery systems for the treatment of cancer, cardiovascular, pulmonary, genetic, and infectious diseases, and considers assessment and review procedures involved in the development of gene-based pharmaceuticals.

Handbook of Formulating Dermal Applications

Author : Nava Dayan
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119364248
Total Pages : 701 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (193 download)

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Book Synopsis Handbook of Formulating Dermal Applications by : Nava Dayan

Download or read book Handbook of Formulating Dermal Applications written by Nava Dayan and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2016-12-07 with total page 701 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The conceptualization and formulation of skin care products intended for topical use is a multifaceted and evolving area of science. Formulators must account for myriad skin types, emerging opportunities for product development as well as a very temperamental retail market. Originally published as "Apply Topically" in 2013 (now out of print), this reissued detailed and comprehensive handbook offers a practical approach to the formulation chemist's day-to-day endeavors by: Addressing the innumerable challenges facing the chemist both in design and at the bench, such as formulating with/for specific properties; formulation, processing and production techniques; sensory and elegancy; stability and preservation; color cosmetics; sunscreens; Offering valuable guidance to troubleshooting issues regarding ingredient selection and interaction, regulatory concerns that must be addressed early in development, and the extrapolation of preservative systems, fragrances, stability and texture aids; Exploring the advantages and limitations of raw materials; Addressing scale-up and pilot production process and concerns; Testing and Measurements Methods. The 22 chapters written by industry experts such as Roger L. McMullen, Paul Thau, Hemi Nae, Ada Polla, Howard Epstein, Joseph Albanese, Mark Chandler, Steve Herman, Gary Kelm, Patricia Aikens, and Sam Shefer, along with many others, give the reader and user the ultimate handbook on topical product development.

Emerging Nanotechnologies in Immunology

Author : Ranjita Shegokar
Publisher : William Andrew
ISBN 13 : 0323401139
Total Pages : 291 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (234 download)

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Book Synopsis Emerging Nanotechnologies in Immunology by : Ranjita Shegokar

Download or read book Emerging Nanotechnologies in Immunology written by Ranjita Shegokar and published by William Andrew. This book was released on 2018-05-17 with total page 291 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Emerging Nanotechnologies in Immunology aims to deliver a systematic and comprehensive review of data concerning the nature of interaction and nano-related risks between the nanophamaceuticals currently in the pipeline of S&T development for skin, ocular, and nasal drug delivery, including absorption, toxicity, and the ability to distribute after systemic exposure.The scientific development of manufactured nanomaterials for drug delivery is increasing rapidly. One of the most prominent applications is topical drug delivery, where cutaneous, ocular, and nasal exposure becomes even more relevant. These targets are the first barrier that nanoparticles encounter when in contact with the human body.The contributors addresses a representative set of the broad spectrum of nanopharmaceuticals currently being used, including cationic lipid nanoparticles, polymeric PLGA, PLA nanoparticles, biomacromolecules-based nanoparticles, and other scaffolds tissue engineered skin substitutes. Regulation and risk is also covered, since the safety of these nanophamaceuticals still represents a barrier to their wide innovative use. - Provides the reader with a thorough knowledge of the safety aspects of nanopharmaceuticals which are currently under research - Focuses on the characterization and quantification of the nanopharmaceuticals - Allows readers to understand the correlation between the nature of the materials and their potential nanotoxicological effects - Includes an overview of regulatory aspects related to the R&D of nanopharmaceuticals

Percutaneous Penetration Enhancers Chemical Methods in Penetration Enhancement

Author : Nina Dragicevic
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3662478625
Total Pages : 387 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (624 download)

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Book Synopsis Percutaneous Penetration Enhancers Chemical Methods in Penetration Enhancement by : Nina Dragicevic

Download or read book Percutaneous Penetration Enhancers Chemical Methods in Penetration Enhancement written by Nina Dragicevic and published by Springer. This book was released on 2016-01-05 with total page 387 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Percutaneous Penetration Enhancers in a mini-series format comprising five volumes, represents the most comprehensive reference on enhancement methods – both well established and recently introduced – in the field of dermal/transdermal drug delivery. In detail the broad range of both chemical and physical methods used to enhance the skin delivery of drugs is described. All aspects of drug delivery and measurement of penetration are covered and the latest findings are provided on skin structure and function, mathematics in skin permeation and modern analytical techniques adapted to assess and measure penetration. In offering a detailed description of the methods currently in use for penetration enhancement, this book will be of value for researchers, pharmaceutical scientists, practitioners and also students.

Mems for Biomedical Applications

Author : Shekhar Bhansali
Publisher : Elsevier
ISBN 13 : 0857096273
Total Pages : 511 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (57 download)

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Book Synopsis Mems for Biomedical Applications by : Shekhar Bhansali

Download or read book Mems for Biomedical Applications written by Shekhar Bhansali and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2012-07-18 with total page 511 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The application of Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) in the biomedical field is leading to a new generation of medical devices. MEMS for biomedical applications reviews the wealth of recent research on fabrication technologies and applications of this exciting technology.The book is divided into four parts: Part one introduces the fundamentals of MEMS for biomedical applications, exploring the microfabrication of polymers and reviewing sensor and actuator mechanisms. Part two describes applications of MEMS for biomedical sensing and diagnostic applications. MEMS for in vivo sensing and electrical impedance spectroscopy are investigated, along with ultrasonic transducers, and lab-on-chip devices. MEMS for tissue engineering and clinical applications are the focus of part three, which considers cell culture and tissue scaffolding devices, BioMEMS for drug delivery and minimally invasive medical procedures. Finally, part four reviews emerging biomedical applications of MEMS, from implantable neuroprobes and ocular implants to cellular microinjection and hybrid MEMS.With its distinguished editors and international team of expert contributors, MEMS for biomedical applications provides an authoritative review for scientists and manufacturers involved in the design and development of medical devices as well as clinicians using this important technology. - Reviews the wealth of recent research on fabrication technologies and applications of Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) in the biomedical field - Introduces the fundamentals of MEMS for biomedical applications, exploring the microfabrication of polymers and reviewing sensor and actuator mechanisms - Considers MEMS for biomedical sensing and diagnostic applications, along with MEMS for in vivo sensing and electrical impedance spectroscopy

Microemulsions

Author : Monzer Fanun
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1420089609
Total Pages : 568 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (2 download)

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Book Synopsis Microemulsions by : Monzer Fanun

Download or read book Microemulsions written by Monzer Fanun and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2008-12-15 with total page 568 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The effective use of microemulsions has increased dramatically during the past few decades as major industrial applications have expanded in a variety of fields. Microemulsions: Properties and Applications provides a complete and systematic assessment of all topics affecting microemulsion performance and discusses the fundamental characteristics, t

Cosmeceuticals and Active Cosmetics

Author : Raja K Sivamani
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1482214172
Total Pages : 460 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (822 download)

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Book Synopsis Cosmeceuticals and Active Cosmetics by : Raja K Sivamani

Download or read book Cosmeceuticals and Active Cosmetics written by Raja K Sivamani and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2015-09-18 with total page 460 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Cosmeceuticals and Active Cosmetics discusses the science of nearly two dozen cosmeceuticals used today. This third edition provides ample evidence on specific cosmeceutical substances, their classes of use, skin conditions for which they are used, and points of interest arising from other considerations, such as toxicology and manufacturing. The book discusses both cosmetic and therapeutic uses of cosmeceuticals for various conditions including rosacea, dry skin, alopecia, eczema, seborrheic dermatitis, purpura, and vitiligo. Active ingredients in the following products are discussed: caffeine, curcumin, green tea, Rhodiola rosea, milk thistle, and more. Also covered are topical peptides and proteins, amino acids and derivatives, antioxidants, vitamins E and C, niacinamide, botanical extracts, and biomarine actives. Providing ample scientific references, this book is an excellent guide to understanding the science behind the use of cosmeceuticals to treat a variety of dermatological conditions.

Nanocosmetics and Nanomedicines

Author : Ruy Beck
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3642197922
Total Pages : 368 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (421 download)

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Book Synopsis Nanocosmetics and Nanomedicines by : Ruy Beck

Download or read book Nanocosmetics and Nanomedicines written by Ruy Beck and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2011-04-06 with total page 368 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book "Nanocosmetics and nanomedicines: new approaches for skin care” contains a summary of the most important nanocarriers for skin delivery. Although “nanocosmetics” is a subject widely commented in the academy and the beauty industry, a book covering the skin care treatments using nanotechnological approaches with cosmetics and nanomedicines is still missing, therefore the need for this publication. This book is divided in three parts: The first one (Part A) is devoted to a brief review on the main topics related to the skin delivery and to the introduction of the subject “nanocosmetics”. The second part (Part B) presents different types of nanocarriers applied as skin delivery systems for cosmetics or drugs. The last part (Part C) shows a wide range of applications of nanotechnology on the skin care area as well as on dermatocosmetic and dermatological fields.

Nanopharmaceuticals: Principles and Applications Vol. 1

Author : Vinod Kumar Yata
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030449254
Total Pages : 394 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (34 download)

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Book Synopsis Nanopharmaceuticals: Principles and Applications Vol. 1 by : Vinod Kumar Yata

Download or read book Nanopharmaceuticals: Principles and Applications Vol. 1 written by Vinod Kumar Yata and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-07-14 with total page 394 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book discusses the biological, technical and study-design challenges of Nanopharmaceuticals. Chapters of this book are dedicated to supermagentic iron oxide nanoparticles for the diagnosis of brain, breast, gastric, ovarian, liver, colorectal, lung and pancreatic cancers. It also includes a brief introduction to magnetic resonance imaging and ends with the future prospective of iron oxide nanoparticles in cancer detection. The book also provides a critical discussion on ‘Computational sequence design for DNA nanostructures’ and gives a brief introduction about the skin delivery. A detailed discussion has been included about the different types of nanocarriers such as micells, microemulsions, nanoemulsions, polymeric and lipid based nanoparticles. Focussing on the safety concerns of nanomedicine it also covers the safety issues, clinical benefits, ecotoxicity and regulatory frame work of nanopharmaceuticals.

Dictionary of Pharmaceutical Medicine

Author : Gerhard Nahler
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3709140161
Total Pages : 186 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis Dictionary of Pharmaceutical Medicine by : Gerhard Nahler

Download or read book Dictionary of Pharmaceutical Medicine written by Gerhard Nahler and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-06-29 with total page 186 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This dictionary is aimed primarily at the beginners entering the new discipline of Pharmaceutical Medicine, an area comprising aspects of toxicology, pharmacology, pharmaceutics, epidemiology, statistics, drug regulatory and legal affairs, medicine and marketing. But also more experienced colleagues in departments engaged in clinical development as well as researchers and marketing experts in the pharmaceutical industry will find concise and up-to-date information. The book is completed by a list of a about 1000 abbreviations encountered in pharmaceutical medicine and a compilation of important addresses of national and international health authorities.

Chitooligosaccharides

Author : Se-Kwon Kim
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030928063
Total Pages : 352 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (39 download)

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Book Synopsis Chitooligosaccharides by : Se-Kwon Kim

Download or read book Chitooligosaccharides written by Se-Kwon Kim and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2022-02-23 with total page 352 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book outlines the production of chitooligossacharides and their derivatives and discusses their main biological activities, biomedical applications and their role in disease prevention. Chitooligosaccharides are products of chitosan or chitin degradation, prepared by enzymatic or chemical hydrolysis of chitosan, and they consist mainly of N-acetyl glucosamine and glucosamine bonded with a glycosidic bond. Compared to chitin and chitosan, chitooligossacharides offer advantages for large-scale and commercial applications due to their solubility in water and lower molecular weight. Written by leading experts, this book is divided into four parts. The first part provides a general introduction to chitooligossacharides. The second part focuses on the bioproduction of chitooligossacharides through enzymatic synthesis and also covers physical and chemical methods of synthesis. The third part explores the major biological activities of chitooligosaccharides, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and neuroprotective activities, and discusses the disease preventing mechanisms of chitooligosaccharides. In this section, readers will also find about the latest in vivo studies which support the use of chitooligosaccharides in the prevention and control of disease. The final part highlights important biomedical applications of chitooligosaccharides, including in tissue engineering, drug delivery and wound healing applications. It also includes the volume editor’s perspective on the health and safety risks of chitooligosaccharides. Given its scope, this book is useful not only for researches in the field but also for students interested in biomaterials, pharmaceuticals, marine biotechnology, nutraceuticals and food science.

Percutaneous Absorption

Author : Robert L. Bronaugh
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 9781420000948
Total Pages : 992 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (9 download)

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Book Synopsis Percutaneous Absorption by : Robert L. Bronaugh

Download or read book Percutaneous Absorption written by Robert L. Bronaugh and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 1999-05-28 with total page 992 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since publication of the Second Edition in 1989, numerous innovations have occurred that affect the way scientists look at issues in the field of percutaneous absorption. Focusing on recent advances as well as updating and expanding the scope of topics covered in the previous edition, Percutaneous Absorption, Third Edition provides thorough coverage of the skin's role as an important portal of entry for chemicals into the body. Assembles the work of nearly 80 experts-30 more than the Second Edition-into a unified, comprehensive volume that contains the latest ideas and research! Complete with nearly 600 drawings, photographs, equations, and tables and more than 1600 bibliographic citations of pertinent literature, Percutaneous Absorption, Third Edition details the applied biology of percutaneous penetration factors that affect skin permeation, such as age, vehicles, metabolism, hydration of skin, and chemical structure in vivo and in vitro techniques for measuring absorption, examining factors influencing methodology such as animal models, volatility of test compound, multiple dosage, and artificial membranes procedures for use in transdermal delivery, exploring topics such as effects of penetration enhancers on absorption, optimizing absorption, and the topical delivery of drugs to muscle tissue And presents new chapters on mathematical models cutaneous metabolism prediction of percutaneous absorption in vitro absorption methodology dermal decontamination concentration of chemicals in skin transdermal drug delivery mechanisms of absorption safety evaluation of cosmetics absorption of drugs and cosmetic ingredients nail penetration Emphasizes human applications-particularly useful for pharmacists, pharmacologists, dermatologists, cosmetic scientists, biochemists, toxicologists, public health officials, manufacturers of cosmetic and toiletry products, and graduate students in these disciplines! An invaluable reference source for readers who need to keep up with the latest developments in the field, Percutaneous Absorption, Third Edition is also an excellent experimental guide for laboratory personnel.