Findings Across Agricultural Public Expenditure Reviews In African Countries

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Findings across agricultural public expenditure reviews in African countries

Author : Mink, Stephen D.
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 52 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Findings across agricultural public expenditure reviews in African countries by : Mink, Stephen D.

Download or read book Findings across agricultural public expenditure reviews in African countries written by Mink, Stephen D. and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2016-04-15 with total page 52 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This paper examines whether the consensus reached by the late 2000s among African Union member countries and their external partners on the need to reverse the decades-long decline in spending for essential public goods and services in agriculture has begun to result inimproved levels and quality of national expenditure programs for the sector. It synthesizes evidence from 20 Agriculture Public Expenditure Reviews (Ag PERs) that have been carried out in countries in Africa South of the Saharan (Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Rwanda, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, and Zambia) with World Bank assistance during 2009–2015. This synthesis focuses on several measures: (1) the level of expenditures on agriculture, with particular reference to the explicit target by African heads of state in the 2003 Maputo Declaration on Agriculture and Food Security (reconfirmed in the Malabo Declaration) to allocate 10 percent of national budgets to the sector; (2) the composition and priorities of expenditures with respect to stated national strategies, evidence of impact, and sustainability; and (3) budget planning and implementation that aims to strengthen public financial management in general, and budget coherence, outputs, outcomes, and supporting mechanisms, such as procurement and audit, in particular. This paper uses Ag PERs to analyze budgetary trends across countries, identifies major expenditure issues, and synthesizes lessons regarding spending efficiency. The analysis results in evidence-based recommendations that address, inter alia, budget planning, budget execution, and monitoring for accountability; the creation of a reliable database; more effective intra-and intersectoral coordination; and the cost-effectiveness of different spending policies for meeting various objectives

Public expenditure on food and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa

Author : Pernechele, V., Fontes, F., Baborska, R., Nkuingoua, J., Pan, X., Tuyishime, C.
Publisher : Food & Agriculture Org.
ISBN 13 : 9251343446
Total Pages : 120 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (513 download)

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Book Synopsis Public expenditure on food and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa by : Pernechele, V., Fontes, F., Baborska, R., Nkuingoua, J., Pan, X., Tuyishime, C.

Download or read book Public expenditure on food and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa written by Pernechele, V., Fontes, F., Baborska, R., Nkuingoua, J., Pan, X., Tuyishime, C. and published by Food & Agriculture Org.. This book was released on 2021-05-07 with total page 120 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Monitoring and analysing food and agriculture policies and their effects is crucial to support decision makers in developing countries to shape better policies that drive agricultural and food systems transformation. This report is a technical analysis of government spending data on food and agriculture during 2004–2018 in 13 sub-Saharan African countries – Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Rwanda, Senegal, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. It analyses the level of public expenditure, including budget execution, source of funding and decentralized spending, as well as the composition of expenditure, including on producer or consumer support, research and development, infrastructure and more to reveal the trends and challenges that countries are facing. It also delves into the relationship between the composition of public expenditure and agricultural performance.As a way forward for future policymaking, the report offers a set of recommendations to strengthen policy monitoring systems and data generation for effective public investments in food and agriculture.The report is produced by the Monitoring and Analysing Food and Agricultural Policies (MAFAP) programme at FAO in collaboration with MAFAP country partners.

Public Expenditures for Agricultural and Rural Development in Africa

Author : Tewodaj Mogues
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1136445404
Total Pages : 305 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (364 download)

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Book Synopsis Public Expenditures for Agricultural and Rural Development in Africa by : Tewodaj Mogues

Download or read book Public Expenditures for Agricultural and Rural Development in Africa written by Tewodaj Mogues and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2012-03-15 with total page 305 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Whereas there is plenty of work looking at macroeconomic effect of public spending on growth and poverty in Africa as well as studies of the impact of spending or investment in one economic sector on outcomes in that sector or on broader welfare measures, this book fills a much needed gap in the research looking how the composition of public spending affects key development outcomes in the region. The book brings together recent analysis on the trends in, and returns to, public spending for agricultural growth and rural development in Africa. Case studies of selected African countries provide insights on the contributions of different types of public expenditures for poverty, growth and welfare outcomes, as well as insights into the constraints in gaining development mileage from investments in the agricultural sector.

South Africa Agriculture Public Expenditure Review

Author : Frikkie Liebenberg
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (972 download)

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Book Synopsis South Africa Agriculture Public Expenditure Review by : Frikkie Liebenberg

Download or read book South Africa Agriculture Public Expenditure Review written by Frikkie Liebenberg and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Two decades after Maputo, What’s in the CAADP ten percent? Determinants and effects of the composition of government agriculture expenditure in Africa

Download Two decades after Maputo, What’s in the CAADP ten percent? Determinants and effects of the composition of government agriculture expenditure in Africa PDF Online Free

Author : Benin, Samuel
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 52 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Two decades after Maputo, What’s in the CAADP ten percent? Determinants and effects of the composition of government agriculture expenditure in Africa by : Benin, Samuel

Download or read book Two decades after Maputo, What’s in the CAADP ten percent? Determinants and effects of the composition of government agriculture expenditure in Africa written by Benin, Samuel and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2024-07-10 with total page 52 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This paper analyzes the determinants of the composition of government agriculture expenditure (GAE) in Africa and estimates the effect of the composition on agricultural productivity using cross-country annual data from 2014 to 2020 and structural equations modeling methods. It includes different specifications of the explanatory variables to assess the sensitivity of the results to different assumptions of the conceptual variables that are hypothesized to affect the composition and pathways of impact of government expenditure. The results show that there is a wide variation in GAE across African countries, and few have achieved the 10 percent CAADP agriculture expenditure target. Most African countries spend much smaller proportions of the national budget on agriculture than the sector’s share in the economy, and total agriculture expenditure seems to be allocated across subsectors according to their relative contribution to the sector’s output, with forestry and fisheries being slightly favored compared with crops and livestock, which dominate the sector. The allocation is also affected by several factors, such as past output and size of the subsector, official development assistance, education, irrigation, and state of agricultural transformation, although there are cross-subsector differences in their influence. There are also subsector differences in the estimated effect of GAE on land productivity: 0.06 to 0.08 for expenditure on the total sector, 0.02 for research, 0 to 0.09 for crops, 0 to 0.08 for livestock, and 0 to 0.07 for fisheries. The lower bound of zero means that the estimated effect is not statistically significant in some of the model specifications, such as whether cross-subsector expenditure effects are considered. We discuss implications of the results and suggestions for future research.

Agricultural policy incentives in sub-Saharan Africa in the last decade (2005-2016)

Author : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Publisher : Food & Agriculture Org.
ISBN 13 : 9251304653
Total Pages : 96 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (513 download)

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Book Synopsis Agricultural policy incentives in sub-Saharan Africa in the last decade (2005-2016) by : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Download or read book Agricultural policy incentives in sub-Saharan Africa in the last decade (2005-2016) written by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and published by Food & Agriculture Org.. This book was released on 2018-06-01 with total page 96 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: FAO Agricultural development economics technical study This report shows diverging results across countries and commodities, although aggregate figures indicate that price incentives to agriculture were increasing across the period overall. Import tariffs and price support are thought to be the main drivers of this trend.

Returns to agricultural public spending in Africa south of the Sahara

Author : Benin, Samuel
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 40 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Returns to agricultural public spending in Africa south of the Sahara by : Benin, Samuel

Download or read book Returns to agricultural public spending in Africa south of the Sahara written by Benin, Samuel and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2015-12-18 with total page 40 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Using data on 34 countries in Africa south of the Sahara (SSA) from 1980 to 2012, this paper assesses the returns to public spending in the agricultural sector, considering expenditures on agriculture as a whole versus expenditures on agricultural research. First, an aggregate production function is estimated using a fixed-effects, instrumental variables estimator to address potential endogeneity of agricultural expenditure and to obtain elasticities of land productivity with respect to total agricultural expenditure and agricultural research expenditure. Different model specifications are used to test the sensitivity of the results to different assumptions. The estimated elasticities are then used to estimate the rate of return to expenditure in different countries and groups of countries. The elasticity of land productivity with respect to total agricultural expenditure per hectare is estimated at 0.04, and elasticity with respect to agricultural research expenditure per hectare is estimated to be higher at 0.09. The aggregate returns to total agricultural expenditure and agricultural research expenditure in SSA are estimated at 11 percent and 93 percent, respectively. Comparative analysis of the estimates with those of previous studies, as well as across different countries and different groups of countries, is undertaken. Then implications are discussed for maintaining the high returns to agricultural research expenditure and for further studies on the low return to total agricultural expenditure, including more disaggregated analysis of expenditure on other functions besides research to better inform prioritization of agricultural expenditure.

The CAADP inaugural Biennial Review and Africa Agricultural Transformation Scorecard: Results and areas for improvement

Author : Benin, Samuel
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 68 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis The CAADP inaugural Biennial Review and Africa Agricultural Transformation Scorecard: Results and areas for improvement by : Benin, Samuel

Download or read book The CAADP inaugural Biennial Review and Africa Agricultural Transformation Scorecard: Results and areas for improvement written by Benin, Samuel and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2018-08-31 with total page 68 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This paper uses the Biennial Review (BR) data and simple correlations to analyze the potential relationship between progress in recommitting to CAADP or mutual accountability and progress in meeting commitments in the other five broad areas. Various weighting systems are used to demonstrate the sensitivity of the weights chosen for computing the scores to develop the Africa Agricultural Transformation Scorecard (AATS). The current BR applies equal weights to the seven thematic areas, followed by equal weights to performance categories and indicators within each thematic area and performance category, respectively. The other weighting systems considered for the sensitivity analysis include equal weights applied at performance category or indicator level, differential weights based on the ease or difficulty in achieving various commitments using the Items Response Theory (IRT), and differential weighting system that gives more weight to performance categories or indicators that are more directly linked to agricultural transformation.

Republic of Mozambique Agriculture Public Expenditure Review

Author : World Bank Group
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (112 download)

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Book Synopsis Republic of Mozambique Agriculture Public Expenditure Review by : World Bank Group

Download or read book Republic of Mozambique Agriculture Public Expenditure Review written by World Bank Group and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The structure of the report reflects the sequence of topics which comprise the theory of change (ToC) and supporting results framework (RF) with respect to achieving sustainable results from prioritized agricultural public expenditures. Chapter 1 outlines the main macro and sectoral challenges which underpins the rationale for carrying out the agriculture public expenditure review (PER). Chapter 2 outlines the methodological aspects, key sectoral policies/strategies/targets; analyses of agricultural expenditure levels/trends, composition, relevant measures of efficiency, effectiveness and value of money; and criteria for defining the scope of the study. Chapter 3 outlines the Government's budgetary cycle, processes and practices based on relevant budgetary decrees/circulars that guide budgetary priorities and allocations for annual and medium-term agricultural sector expenditure, and management aspects. Chapter 4 conducts a backward assessment through an analyses of the levels, trends, composition, and performance of agricultural including the efficiency, effectiveness and emerging results of agricultural public expenditure, for the period 2013 - 2017. Chapter 5 synthesizes the expenditure performance of three strategic programs: agricultural technology, irrigation, and aspects related to decentralization and adaptation to climate change. Chapter 6 highlights the role, scope, levels/trends and sources of private sector financing in the agricultural sector, and their key determinants. Chapter 7 takes a forward-looking approach to the expenditure assessment by outlining: (a) key elements and emerging issues; (b) the approach used for estimating and using their medium-term expenditure framework; (c) good practices; and (d) alignment between the forward sectoral expenditure and priority agricultural sector policies and targets. Chapter 8 synthesizes the main findings and priority recommendations in the form of a roadmap, including a supporting proposed results-focused agriculture expenditure action plan.

Chad Public Expenditure Review in the Agricultural, Rural Development, and Food Security Sector

Author : Weltbank
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (125 download)

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Book Synopsis Chad Public Expenditure Review in the Agricultural, Rural Development, and Food Security Sector by : Weltbank

Download or read book Chad Public Expenditure Review in the Agricultural, Rural Development, and Food Security Sector written by Weltbank and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Over the review period covered by this report (2003-2012), the budget allocated to agriculture increased noticeably more than the sector's contribution to GDP. This reflects a notable effort by the Chad authorities to increase the budget to boost this sector's development in recent years. In this proactive context, Chad signed its CAADP compact in December 2013 to continue supporting agriculture's revival. The CAADP is being implemented in Chad even as the terms of the National Rural Sector Investment Program (PNISR, 2014-2020) are being finalized. Within the context of the CAADP, the Government of Chad (GOC) wished to undertake a review of public agriculture expenditures to learn from past budgetary implementation in this sector with a view to improving future program performance. Following a request by the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MoAI), the NEPAD planning and coordination agency gave Chad it's backing for this review. This process was undertaken by the Program for Strengthening National Comprehensive Agricultural Public Expenditure in Sub-Saharan Africa, co-financed by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the CAADP Multi-Donor Trust Fund. This program, implemented by the World Bank, aims to improve the impact of the still-limited public resources available to governments in Sub-Saharan Africa to foster agricultural development and reduce poverty in rural areas, where most of the poor in these countries, notably Chad, live. This study follows and builds upon a number of similar studies conducted in recent years on public expenditure management, in particular in Chad the Action Plan for the Modernization of Public Finances (PAMFIP). However, these studies have focused on budget management as a whole, and none to date has looked at the agricultural sector specifically.

The Efficiency of Government Expenditure

Author : Ms.Keiko Honjo
Publisher : International Monetary Fund
ISBN 13 : 145192240X
Total Pages : 61 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (519 download)

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Book Synopsis The Efficiency of Government Expenditure by : Ms.Keiko Honjo

Download or read book The Efficiency of Government Expenditure written by Ms.Keiko Honjo and published by International Monetary Fund. This book was released on 1997-11-01 with total page 61 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This paper assesses the efficiency of government expenditure on education and health in 38 countries in Africa in 1984-95, both in relation to each other and compared with countries in Asia and the Western Hemisphere. The results show that, on average, countries in Africa are less efficient than countries in Asia and the Western Hemisphere; however, education and health spending in Africa became more efficient during that period. The assessment further suggests that improvements in educational attainment and health output in African countries require more than just higher budgetary allocations.

PEFA, Public Financial Management, and Good Governance

Author : Jens Kromann Kristensen
Publisher : World Bank Publications
ISBN 13 : 146481466X
Total Pages : 168 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (648 download)

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Book Synopsis PEFA, Public Financial Management, and Good Governance by : Jens Kromann Kristensen

Download or read book PEFA, Public Financial Management, and Good Governance written by Jens Kromann Kristensen and published by World Bank Publications. This book was released on 2019-11-24 with total page 168 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This project, based on the Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability (PEFA) data set, researched how PEFA can be used to shape policy development in public financial management (PFM) and other major relevant policy areas such as anticorruption, revenue mobilization, political economy analysis, and fragile states. The report explores what shapes the PFM system in low- and middle-income countries by examining the relationship between political institutions and the quality of the PFM system. Although the report finds some evidence that multiple political parties in control of the legislature is associated with better PFM performance, the report finds the need to further refine and test the theories on the relationship between political institutions and PFM. The report addresses the question of the outcomes of PFM systems, distinguishing between fragile and nonfragile states. It finds that better PFM performance is associated with more reliable budgets in terms of expenditure composition in fragile states, but not aggregate budget credibility. Moreover, in contrast to existing studies, it finds no evidence that PFM quality matters for deficit and debt ratios, irrespective of whether a country is fragile or not. The report also explores the relationship between perceptions of corruption and PFM performance. It finds strong evidence of a relationship between better PFM performance and improvements in perceptions of corruption. It also finds that PFM reforms associated with better controls have a stronger relationship with improvements in perceptions of corruption compared to PFM reforms associated with more transparency. The last chapter looks at the relationship between PEFA indicators for revenue administration and domestic resource mobilization. It focuses on the credible use of penalties for noncompliance as a proxy for the type of political commitment required to improve tax performance. The analysis shows that countries that credibly enforce penalties for noncompliance collect more taxes on average.

Securing Development

Author : Bernard Harborne
Publisher : World Bank Publications
ISBN 13 : 1464807671
Total Pages : 334 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (648 download)

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Book Synopsis Securing Development by : Bernard Harborne

Download or read book Securing Development written by Bernard Harborne and published by World Bank Publications. This book was released on 2017-03-01 with total page 334 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Securing Development: Public Finance and the Security Sector highlights the role of public finance in the delivery of security and criminal justice services. This book offers a framework for analyzing public financial management, financial transparency, and oversight, as well as expenditure policy issues that determine how to most appropriately manage security and justice services. The interplay among security, justice, and public finance is still a relatively unexplored area of development. Such a perspective can help security actors provide more professional, effective, and efficient security and justice services for citizens, while also strengthening systems for accountability. The book is the result of a project undertaken jointly by staff from the World Bank and the United Nations, integrating the disciplines where each institution holds a comparative advantage and a core mandate. The primary audience includes government officials bearing both security and financial responsibilities, staff of international organizations working on public expenditure management and security sector issues, academics, and development practitioners working in an advisory capacity.

Africa's Infrastructure

Author : Vivien Foster
Publisher : World Bank Publications
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 388 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (318 download)

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Book Synopsis Africa's Infrastructure by : Vivien Foster

Download or read book Africa's Infrastructure written by Vivien Foster and published by World Bank Publications. This book was released on 2010 with total page 388 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This booklet contains the Overview as well as a list of contents from the forthcoming book Africa's Infrastructure: A time for Transformation.

Can contract farming increase farmers’ income and enhance adoption of food safety practices?

Author : Kumar, Anjani
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 36 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Can contract farming increase farmers’ income and enhance adoption of food safety practices? by : Kumar, Anjani

Download or read book Can contract farming increase farmers’ income and enhance adoption of food safety practices? written by Kumar, Anjani and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2016-04-20 with total page 36 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Growing inequality has become an important concern in many countries. One of the ways that inequality is perpetuated is through differential market access across regions. This research deals with one of the primary determinants of regional inequality manifested in terms of market access. Nepal is one country where hierarchical geography leads to regional inequality. Differential market access can cause as well as accentuate inequality among farmers. Coordination arrangements such as contract farming can improve outcomes for the farmers and integrators on the one hand, but on the other hand it can accentuate inequality if only some regions benefit from it. With this background, in this paper we study the case of contract farming for exports with farmers in remote hilly areas of Nepal. The prospect for contract farming in such areas with accessibility issues owing to underdeveloped markets and lack of amenities is ambiguous. On the one hand, contractors in these areas find it difficult to build links, particularly when final consumers have quality and safety requirements. On the other hand, remoteness can make the contracts more sustainable if the agroecology offers product-specific quality advantages and, more important, if there is a lack of side-selling opportunities. At the same time, concerns remain about buyers’ monopsonistic powers when remotely located small farmers do not have outside options. This study hence quantifies the benefits of contract farming on remotely located farmers’ income and compliance with food safety measures. Results show that contract farming is significantly more profitable (offering a 58 percent greater net income) than independent production, the main pathway being higher price realization, along with training on practices and provision of quality seeds.

Can labor market imperfections explain changes in the inverse farm size-productivity relationship ?

Author : Deininger, Klaus
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 32 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Can labor market imperfections explain changes in the inverse farm size-productivity relationship ? by : Deininger, Klaus

Download or read book Can labor market imperfections explain changes in the inverse farm size-productivity relationship ? written by Deininger, Klaus and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2016-06-24 with total page 32 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: To understand whether and how inverse relationship between farm size and productivity changes when labor market performance improves, we use large national farm panel from India covering a quarter-century (1982, 1999, 2008) to show that the inverserelationship weakened significantly over time, despite an increase in the dispersion of farm sizes. A key reason was the substitution of capital for labor in response to nonagricultural labor demand. In addition, family labor wasmore efficient than hired labor in the 1982–1999 period, but not during the 1999–2008period.In line with labor market imperfections as a key factor, separability of labor supply and demand decisions cannot be rejected in the second period,except in villages with very low nonagricultural labor demand.

Rent Dispersion in the US Agricultural Insurance Industry

Author : Smith, Vincent H.
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 40 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Rent Dispersion in the US Agricultural Insurance Industry by : Smith, Vincent H.

Download or read book Rent Dispersion in the US Agricultural Insurance Industry written by Smith, Vincent H. and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2016-05-20 with total page 40 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A central, but inadequately explored issue with respect to subsidized crop insurance programs concerns the costs of delivering insurance coverage to farmers. This study examines that issue in the context of the heavily subsidized US crop insurance program which has often been put forward as a model for agricultural insurance programs in other countries. US Government programs often rely on private firms to deliver income transfers or services, which then establish their own rent-seeking lobbies, which are shared with input suppliers. This rent dispersion process is examined in the context of the U.S. agricultural insurance industry, which receives as much as one third of the annual subsidies that support the federal crop insurance program. We find that as total payments to insurance companies increased between 2001 and 2009, an increasingly large share of the agricultural insurance industry’s rents accrued to insurance agents, although in markets where insurance companies possessed some oligopsony power, agent payments are smaller. The findings also suggest that the insurance industry (companies and independent agents) would almost surely provide the same service for substantially less than the gross revenues from the subsidies and underwriting gains they received.