Evaluating The Undergraduate Research Experience

Download Evaluating The Undergraduate Research Experience full books in PDF, epub, and Kindle. Read online Evaluating The Undergraduate Research Experience ebook anywhere anytime directly on your device. Fast Download speed and no annoying ads. We cannot guarantee that every ebooks is available!

Evaluating The Undergraduate Research Experience

Author : Gabriel M. Della-Piana
Publisher : IAP
ISBN 13 : 1623965438
Total Pages : 240 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (239 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Evaluating The Undergraduate Research Experience by : Gabriel M. Della-Piana

Download or read book Evaluating The Undergraduate Research Experience written by Gabriel M. Della-Piana and published by IAP. This book was released on 2014-01-01 with total page 240 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The current movement toward more and better research experiences for undergraduates has spread across disciplines in the arts, humanities, science, mathematics, and engineering beyond the “research university” to the full range of post-secondary institutions of higher education. Along with this spread of practice is the need to take stock of the programs and make use of evaluation to inform program improvement and to communicate an understanding of the worth of the program to funders, institutional administrators, faculty/mentors, and students. The main aim of the book is to provide a practical guide for planning an evaluation of an undergraduate experience program. The intent is to enable a program director to plan with a team consisting of an internal evaluator and program staff, a systematic and rigorous study of the program (processes, products, organizational dynamics, etc.) including the gathering and analysis of information that is context-sensitive, and connected to an argument and justification for descriptive, causal, and practice-useful claims. It is useful for a program director to contract with an evaluator. It is specific to the field of undergraduate research experience while being useful for other fields. It places strong emphasis on how to find and specify evaluation questions that yield information that has high leverage for program improvement and demonstrating the effectiveness and worth of the program. A measure of attitude toward evaluation allows you to reflect on your leanings evaluation orientations such as formative/summative, process/product, preordinate goals/emergent goals, and other characteristics of approaches to and confidence in evaluation. The main readership is targeted to directors and developers of undergraduate research experience programs. While the examples are mainly in the undergraduate research experience, it will be found useful for instructors of courses in project evaluation and beginning level evaluators. The usefulness of the book is enhanced by a checklist in the final chapter that integrates the approaches from throughout the book referencing the earlier discussions.

Undergraduate Research in the Sciences

Author : Sandra Laursen
Publisher : Jossey-Bass
ISBN 13 : 0470625619
Total Pages : 352 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (76 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Undergraduate Research in the Sciences by : Sandra Laursen

Download or read book Undergraduate Research in the Sciences written by Sandra Laursen and published by Jossey-Bass. This book was released on 2010-06-10 with total page 352 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Undergraduate research (UR) is widely believed to enhance the learning experience of students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics programs. This is the first comprehensive, practical, research-based book on undergraduate research. It addresses how the benefits to UR participants arise; compares the benefits of UR with other types of educational activities or experience; the long-term value of UR; and more. Intended to assist both existing and new UR practitioners with program design and evaluation needs, the book will also be useful to the wider community of academics, policy-makers, and funders of UR programs.

Evaluating and Improving Undergraduate Teaching in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

Author : National Research Council
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309072778
Total Pages : 233 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (9 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Evaluating and Improving Undergraduate Teaching in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics by : National Research Council

Download or read book Evaluating and Improving Undergraduate Teaching in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2003-01-19 with total page 233 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Economic, academic, and social forces are causing undergraduate schools to start a fresh examination of teaching effectiveness. Administrators face the complex task of developing equitable, predictable ways to evaluate, encourage, and reward good teaching in science, math, engineering, and technology. Evaluating, and Improving Undergraduate Teaching in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics offers a vision for systematic evaluation of teaching practices and academic programs, with recommendations to the various stakeholders in higher education about how to achieve change. What is good undergraduate teaching? This book discusses how to evaluate undergraduate teaching of science, mathematics, engineering, and technology and what characterizes effective teaching in these fields. Why has it been difficult for colleges and universities to address the question of teaching effectiveness? The committee explores the implications of differences between the research and teaching cultures-and how practices in rewarding researchers could be transferred to the teaching enterprise. How should administrators approach the evaluation of individual faculty members? And how should evaluation results be used? The committee discusses methodologies, offers practical guidelines, and points out pitfalls. Evaluating, and Improving Undergraduate Teaching in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics provides a blueprint for institutions ready to build effective evaluation programs for teaching in science fields.

Assessing the Value of Research in the Chemical Sciences

Author : Chemical Sciences Roundtable
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309519764
Total Pages : 138 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (95 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Assessing the Value of Research in the Chemical Sciences by : Chemical Sciences Roundtable

Download or read book Assessing the Value of Research in the Chemical Sciences written by Chemical Sciences Roundtable and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 1998-11-13 with total page 138 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book captures the messages from a workshop that brought together research managers from government, industry, and academia to review and discuss the mechanisms that have been proposed or used to assess the value of chemical research. The workshop focused on the assessment procedures that have been or will be established within the various organizations that carry out or fund research activities, with particular attention to the Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA). The book presents approaches and ideas from leaders in each area that were intended to identify new and useful ways of assessing the value and potential impact of research activities.

Getting In

Author : Paris H. Grey
Publisher : University of Chicago Press
ISBN 13 : 0226825418
Total Pages : 254 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (268 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Getting In by : Paris H. Grey

Download or read book Getting In written by Paris H. Grey and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2023-05-26 with total page 254 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "For undergraduates in STEMM fields, the experience of working in a lab or other research position has become an increasingly important credential for many career paths. Landing such a position can be difficult, with hundreds of applicants for perhaps a dozen openings in the most competitive cases. But finding a meaningful research experience also involves knowing what to look for and how to present yourself effectively, skills that represent a hidden curriculum for many students. In this book, an expert lab manager and a longtime principal investigator share their secrets for securing these positions, both in summer undergraduate research programs and in labs operating during the academic year. They offer advice on the application and interview processes for undergraduates who often do not know how to prepare appropriately professional emails, cover letters, CVs, and interview responses. They address students in a wide variety of STEMM fields at both research-intensive universities and primarily undergraduate institutions. And they focus on how first-generation college students and those from low-income backgrounds and communities historically underrepresented in science can learn to negotiate the hidden curriculum and claim their place in research settings. This new edition also serves as a companion to the authors' social accounts, including @YouInTheLab and @TheLabMentor, where they offer advice on lab life at many levels"--

Undergraduate Research in the Sciences

Author : Sandra Laursen
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 0470625635
Total Pages : 320 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (76 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Undergraduate Research in the Sciences by : Sandra Laursen

Download or read book Undergraduate Research in the Sciences written by Sandra Laursen and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2010-06-15 with total page 320 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Undergraduate research enhances the learning experience of students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Undergraduate Research in the Sciences offers a groundbreaking and practical research-based book on the topic. This comprehensive resource addresses how undergraduate research benefits undergraduate participants, including those populations that are underrepresented in the sciences; compares its benefits with other types of educational activities and experiences; and assesses its long-term value to students and faculty as both a scholarly and educational endeavor. In laying out the processes by which these benefits are achieved, this important book can assist faculty and program directors with practical guidance for design and evaluation of both new and existing undergraduate research programs. Praise for Undergraduate Research in the Sciences "This meticulous, definitive study of the effects of working with a faculty member on research as an undergraduate confirms the overall value of the experience by taking us deep into the minds and actions of participants—both faculty and students. As a result we now have many more compelling reasons to get more students involved with research mentors and ways to optimize the benefits for all parties."—George D. Kuh, Chancellor's Professor and director, Indiana University Center for Postsecondary Research "This timely book offers a unique, comprehensive analysis of undergraduate research in the sciences, based on the voices of college students and faculty mentors who have participated in these voyages of discovery. As our nation struggles to train more scientists, this book will be a valuable resource for designing undergraduate research experiences that can build our country's capacity for discovery and innovation."—Arthur B. Ellis, Vice Chancellor for Research, University of California, San Diego "The text is written in a lucid and engaging style and will be a valuable guide to policymakers, academic administrators, and faculty members who want to find ways to engage undergraduates in the 'real work' of investigation."—Judith A. Ramaley, president, Winona State University "This book is a 'must-read' for anyone who directs undergraduates in research. It presents an impressive and rigorous body of work that brings fresh insights into the field of undergraduate research. The next generation of scientists will benefit greatly from the findings and recommendations!"—Jo Handelsman, Howard Hughes Medical Institute Professor, Yale University

Entering Research

Author : Janet L. Branchaw
Publisher : Macmillan Higher Education
ISBN 13 : 1319294448
Total Pages : 1171 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (192 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Entering Research by : Janet L. Branchaw

Download or read book Entering Research written by Janet L. Branchaw and published by Macmillan Higher Education. This book was released on 2019-07-10 with total page 1171 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: For students whose experience with science has been primarily in the classroom, it can be difficult to identify and contact potential mentors, and to navigate the transition to a one-on-one, mentor-student relationship. This is especially true for those who are new to research, or who belong to groups that are underrepresented in research. The Entering Research curriculum offers a mechanism to structure the independent research experience, and help students overcome these challenges.

Undergraduate Research Experiences for STEM Students

Author : National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309452805
Total Pages : 279 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (94 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Undergraduate Research Experiences for STEM Students by : National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

Download or read book Undergraduate Research Experiences for STEM Students written by National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2017-06-19 with total page 279 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Undergraduate research has a rich history, and many practicing researchers point to undergraduate research experiences (UREs) as crucial to their own career success. There are many ongoing efforts to improve undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education that focus on increasing the active engagement of students and decreasing traditional lecture-based teaching, and UREs have been proposed as a solution to these efforts and may be a key strategy for broadening participation in STEM. In light of the proposals questions have been asked about what is known about student participation in UREs, best practices in UREs design, and evidence of beneficial outcomes from UREs. Undergraduate Research Experiences for STEM Students provides a comprehensive overview of and insights about the current and rapidly evolving types of UREs, in an effort to improve understanding of the complexity of UREs in terms of their content, their surrounding context, the diversity of the student participants, and the opportunities for learning provided by a research experience. This study analyzes UREs by considering them as part of a learning system that is shaped by forces related to national policy, institutional leadership, and departmental culture, as well as by the interactions among faculty, other mentors, and students. The report provides a set of questions to be considered by those implementing UREs as well as an agenda for future research that can help answer questions about how UREs work and which aspects of the experiences are most powerful.

International Perspectives on Undergraduate Research

Author : Nancy H. Hensel
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030535592
Total Pages : 330 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (35 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis International Perspectives on Undergraduate Research by : Nancy H. Hensel

Download or read book International Perspectives on Undergraduate Research written by Nancy H. Hensel and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-12-21 with total page 330 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This edited volume explores how undergraduate research and research-based teaching is being implemented in countries around the world. Leading educators come together to discuss commonly accepted definitions of undergraduate research, country-specific models and partnerships for student research, university policies and practices to support faculty and staff who engage students in research, and available assessment data that supports the effectiveness of undergraduate research as a means to increase student engagement and academic achievement. As undergraduate research has spread around the world, professors, administrators, and policymakers benefit by learning about other approaches and models of undergraduate research.

Quality in the Undergraduate Experience

Author : National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309443016
Total Pages : 99 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (94 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Quality in the Undergraduate Experience by : National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

Download or read book Quality in the Undergraduate Experience written by National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2016-07-16 with total page 99 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Students, parents, and government agencies need as much information as possible about the outcomes of the higher education experience and the extent to which they can expect a fair return on their investment in higher education.In order to better understand the concept of quality - enabling students to acquire knowledge in a variety of disciplines and deep knowledge in at least one discipline, as well as to develop a range of skills and habits of mind that prepare them for career success, engaged citizenship, intercultural competence, social responsibility, and continued intellectual growth - an ad hoc planning committee of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Board on Higher Education and Workforce, with funding from the Lumina Foundation, organized a workshop in Washington, D.C., on December 14-15, 2015.This report summarizes the presentations and discussion of that event.

Undergraduate Research in the Sciences

Author : Sandra Laursen
Publisher : Jossey-Bass
ISBN 13 : 9780470227572
Total Pages : 320 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (275 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Undergraduate Research in the Sciences by : Sandra Laursen

Download or read book Undergraduate Research in the Sciences written by Sandra Laursen and published by Jossey-Bass. This book was released on 2010-07-20 with total page 320 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Undergraduate research enhances the learning experience of students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Undergraduate Research in the Sciences offers a groundbreaking and practical research-based book on the topic. This comprehensive resource addresses how undergraduate research benefits undergraduate participants, including those populations that are underrepresented in the sciences; compares its benefits with other types of educational activities and experiences; and assesses its long-term value to students and faculty as both a scholarly and educational endeavor. In laying out the processes by which these benefits are achieved, this important book can assist faculty and program directors with practical guidance for design and evaluation of both new and existing undergraduate research programs. Praise for Undergraduate Research in the Sciences "This meticulous, definitive study of the effects of working with a faculty member on research as an undergraduate confirms the overall value of the experience by taking us deep into the minds and actions of participants—both faculty and students. As a result we now have many more compelling reasons to get more students involved with research mentors and ways to optimize the benefits for all parties."—George D. Kuh, Chancellor's Professor and director, Indiana University Center for Postsecondary Research "This timely book offers a unique, comprehensive analysis of undergraduate research in the sciences, based on the voices of college students and faculty mentors who have participated in these voyages of discovery. As our nation struggles to train more scientists, this book will be a valuable resource for designing undergraduate research experiences that can build our country's capacity for discovery and innovation."—Arthur B. Ellis, Vice Chancellor for Research, University of California, San Diego "The text is written in a lucid and engaging style and will be a valuable guide to policymakers, academic administrators, and faculty members who want to find ways to engage undergraduates in the 'real work' of investigation."—Judith A. Ramaley, president, Winona State University "This book is a 'must-read' for anyone who directs undergraduates in research. It presents an impressive and rigorous body of work that brings fresh insights into the field of undergraduate research. The next generation of scientists will benefit greatly from the findings and recommendations!"—Jo Handelsman, Howard Hughes Medical Institute Professor, Yale University

The Indispensable Guide to Undergraduate Research

Author : Anne H. Charity Hudley
Publisher : Teachers College Press
ISBN 13 : 0807775827
Total Pages : 186 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (77 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis The Indispensable Guide to Undergraduate Research by : Anne H. Charity Hudley

Download or read book The Indispensable Guide to Undergraduate Research written by Anne H. Charity Hudley and published by Teachers College Press. This book was released on 2017 with total page 186 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Despite all of the information that exists to encourage students to attend and do well in college, this is the first research-based guide that directly advises first- and second-year college students. With a focus on the needs and interests of students who are underrepresented in the academy (African American, Latinx, low-income, and first-generation students), this book will help all students take full advantage of the academic resources that the university setting has to offer. The authors introduce students to different types of research across the disciplines, showing them how to work with professors to build a course of study, how to integrate research work into coursework, and how to write and present research. This timely volume will also assist faculty, staff, and parents in providing the needed tools to promote student success. Book Features: Prepares students for the transition from high school to college with a focus on writing, time management, and research skills.Addresses the challenges that face high-achieving, underrepresented students.Empowers students to seek out resources and research opportunities to achieve their full academic potential.Includes models, approaches, student voices, and vignettes from the authors’ successful undergraduate research program. “A must read for every college student. This practical guide provides a roadmap for success as a researcher, a scholar, and a learner.” —Tia Brown McNair, Association of American Colleges & Universities “Faculty mentors and administrative leaders who aspire to be effective sponsors and supporters of students from diverse backgrounds should definitely acquire this resource.” —Elizabeth L. Ambos, Council on Undergraduate Research “What I love about this book is the broader, humanistic conversation about how pursuing research becomes a window into how one becomes a supremely informed and critical citizen.” —Armando Bengochea, director, Mellon-Mays Undergraduate Fellowship Program

The Cambridge Handbook of Undergraduate Research

Author : Harald A. Mieg
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1108874673
Total Pages : 877 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (88 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis The Cambridge Handbook of Undergraduate Research by : Harald A. Mieg

Download or read book The Cambridge Handbook of Undergraduate Research written by Harald A. Mieg and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2022-07-07 with total page 877 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Undergraduate Research (UR) can be defined as an investigation into a specific topic within a discipline by an undergraduate student that makes an original contribution to the field. It has become a major consideration among research universities around the world, in order to advance both academic teaching and research productivity. Edited by an international team of world authorities in UR, this Handbook is the first truly comprehensive and systematic account of undergraduate research, which brings together different international approaches, with attention to both theory and practice. It is split into sections covering different countries, disciplines, and methodologies. It also provides an overview of current research and theoretical perspectives on undergraduate research as well as future developmental prospects of UR. Written in an engaging style, yet wide-ranging in its scope, it is essential reading for anyone wishing to broaden their understanding of how undergraduate research is implemented worldwide.

Undergraduate Research at Community Colleges

Author : Nancy H. Hensel
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781003448402
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (484 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Undergraduate Research at Community Colleges by : Nancy H. Hensel

Download or read book Undergraduate Research at Community Colleges written by Nancy H. Hensel and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Co-published with the Council on Undergraduate ResearchThis book highlights the exciting work of two-year colleges to prepare students for their future careers through engagement in undergraduate research. It emerged from work in five community college systems thanks to two National Science Foundation grants the Council for Undergraduate Research received to support community colleges' efforts to establish undergraduate research programs. Chapters one, two, and three provide background information about community colleges, undergraduate research, and the systems the author worked with: California, City University of New York, Maricopa Community College District - Arizona, Oklahoma, and Tennessee. Chapter four examines success strategies. The next five chapters look at five approaches to undergraduate research: basic/applied, course-based, community-based, interdisciplinary, and partnership research. Chapters ten, eleven and twelve discuss ways to assess and evaluate undergraduate research experiences, inclusive pedagogy, and ways to advance undergraduate research.Today there are 942 public community colleges in the United States, providing affordable access to 6.8 million students who enrolled for credit in one of the public two-year institutions in the United States. Students are more prepared for the next step in their education or careers after participating in quality UR experiences.

Evaluating Research

Author : Francis C. Dane
Publisher : SAGE Publications
ISBN 13 : 1544396341
Total Pages : 361 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (443 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Evaluating Research by : Francis C. Dane

Download or read book Evaluating Research written by Francis C. Dane and published by SAGE Publications. This book was released on 2022-02-08 with total page 361 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Evaluating Research 3e provides students with the skills to read and evaluate research studies. Aimed at courses where it will be more important for students to read than conduct research, this book covers all aspects social, behavioral, and health science research from the ground up, as well as main types of research methods.

Undergraduate Research at Community Colleges

Author : Nancy H. Hensel
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1000980197
Total Pages : 160 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (9 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Undergraduate Research at Community Colleges by : Nancy H. Hensel

Download or read book Undergraduate Research at Community Colleges written by Nancy H. Hensel and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2023-07-03 with total page 160 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Co-published with the Council on Undergraduate ResearchThis book highlights the exciting work of two-year colleges to prepare students for their future careers through engagement in undergraduate research. It emerged from work in five community college systems thanks to two National Science Foundation grants the Council for Undergraduate Research received to support community colleges’ efforts to establish undergraduate research programs. Chapters one, two, and three provide background information about community colleges, undergraduate research, and the systems the author worked with: California, City University of New York, Maricopa Community College District - Arizona, Oklahoma, and Tennessee. Chapter four examines success strategies. The next five chapters look at five approaches to undergraduate research: basic/applied, course-based, community-based, interdisciplinary, and partnership research. Chapters ten, eleven and twelve discuss ways to assess and evaluate undergraduate research experiences, inclusive pedagogy, and ways to advance undergraduate research.Today there are 942 public community colleges in the United States, providing affordable access to 6.8 million students who enrolled for credit in one of the public two-year institutions in the United States. Students are more prepared for the next step in their education or careers after participating in quality UR experiences.

Creating Effective Undergraduate Research Programs in Science

Author : Roman Taraban
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 274 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Creating Effective Undergraduate Research Programs in Science by : Roman Taraban

Download or read book Creating Effective Undergraduate Research Programs in Science written by Roman Taraban and published by . This book was released on 2008-07-24 with total page 274 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This is the first comprehensive, data-based study of the benefits to students who actively participate in authentic science research programs. The book features contributors from a variety of institutions who bring together studies of undergraduate research programs. They focus on identifying the successful elements of each program, and then draw valuable conclusions about the effects those programs have on the students. Providing much-needed information about the organization and administration of programs and the challenges to create and sustain viable research opportunities, this essential resource: Features a variety of perspectives, including those of external evaluators, longtime program directors, participants, and administrators. Identifies the characteristics of effective programs and the kinds of gains that faculty and administrators can expect from them. Examines the barriers to research opportunities, including lack of departmental and institutional resources and inadequate faculty compensation. Can be used as a primer for creating programs and for determining their effectiveness.