Environmental Damage To Dna And The Protective Effects Of Phytochemicals

Download Environmental Damage To Dna And The Protective Effects Of Phytochemicals full books in PDF, epub, and Kindle. Read online Environmental Damage To Dna And The Protective Effects Of Phytochemicals ebook anywhere anytime directly on your device. Fast Download speed and no annoying ads. We cannot guarantee that every ebooks is available!

Environmental Damage to DNA and the Protective Effects of Phytochemicals

Author : Bechan Sharma
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1000428583
Total Pages : 81 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (4 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Environmental Damage to DNA and the Protective Effects of Phytochemicals by : Bechan Sharma

Download or read book Environmental Damage to DNA and the Protective Effects of Phytochemicals written by Bechan Sharma and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2021-08-02 with total page 81 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Environmental Damage to DNA and the Protective Effects of Phytochemicals provides information on the toxicity of natural as well as synthetic chemicals in the living systems. These can lead to DNA damage and the emergence of serious consequences or manifestations causing varied health hazards. In addition, the ten chapters of the book reflect on the possible applications of plants or plant extracts to impart protection for living cells from the xenobiotics-mediated DNA damage. The book offers comprehensive coverage of the many essential topics in the subject including: Environmental factors and DNA damage Molecular mechanisms associated with DNA damage by various environmental (Physical, Chemical and Biological) factors Synergistic effects of environmental factors Phytochemicals acting both as DNA protectants and genotoxicants Experimental models for the study of the genotoxic potential of environmental factors and protection by phytochemicals This book connects readers who possess a life sciences background to the current understanding, concept and mechanisms involved in environmental-factors-mediated DNA damage. Scientific terms are introduced, defined, described and placed appropriately in the text. The protective effect of some plant extracts/phytochemicals has also been included. Environmental Damage to DNA and the Protective Effects of Phytochemicals is intended to cater the need of BSc, MSc and research students who are striving to discover the mechanism(s) associated with protection of DNA by plant-based chemicals. This is the first edition of our book and the valuable suggestions and comments from the readers are solicited.

Environmental Damage to DNA and the Protective Effects of Phytochemicals

Author : Bechan Sharma
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781032055169
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (551 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Environmental Damage to DNA and the Protective Effects of Phytochemicals by : Bechan Sharma

Download or read book Environmental Damage to DNA and the Protective Effects of Phytochemicals written by Bechan Sharma and published by . This book was released on 2021-08 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Environmental damage to DNA and the protective effects of phytochemicals provides information on the toxicity of natural as well as synthetic chemicals in the living systems leading to DNA damage and emergence of serious consequences or manifestations causing varied health hazards. In addition, the book containing a total of ten chapters reflects on to the possible applications of plants or plant extracts imparting protection of the living cells from the xenobiotics mediated DNA damage. The book offers comprehensive coverage of the many essential topics in the subject including: Environmental factors and DNA damage Molecular mechanisms associated to DNA damage by various environmental ( Physical, Chemical and Biological) factors Synergistic effects of environmental factors Phytochemicals acting both as DNA protectants and genotoxicants Experimental models for study of genotoxic potential of environmental factors and protection by phytochemicals Most scientific terms have been defined, introduced, described and placed appropriately in the text when they are earlier introduced or described. The chief aim of this particular book is to connect the readers from all walks of life sciences and to have current understanding, concept and mechanisms involved in environmental factors mediated DNA damage. The protective effect of some plant extracts / phytochemicals has also been included. This book is intended to cater the need of BSc, MSc and research students who are striving to discover the mechanism(s) associated to protection of DNA by plant based chemicals. This is the first edition of our book and the valuable suggestions and comments from the readers are solicited"--

Cruciferous Vegetables, Isothiocyanates and Indoles

Author : International Agency for Research on Cancer
Publisher : IARC
ISBN 13 : 9789283230090
Total Pages : 282 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (3 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Cruciferous Vegetables, Isothiocyanates and Indoles by : International Agency for Research on Cancer

Download or read book Cruciferous Vegetables, Isothiocyanates and Indoles written by International Agency for Research on Cancer and published by IARC. This book was released on 2004 with total page 282 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This publication sets outs the findings of an IARC Working Group, held in Lyon, France in November 2003, which considered the benefits of a diet rich in cruciferous vegetables in helping to reduce the risk of various cancers. Cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, watercress and brussel sprouts, contain substantial amounts of compounds which have been shown to inhibit the growth of cancers. This publication reviews current knowledge on the topic, including data from human, experimental and mechanistic studies, as well as making recommendations for future research and public health policy options.

Modified Nucleic Acids in Biology and Medicine

Author : Stefan Jurga
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319341758
Total Pages : 456 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (193 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Modified Nucleic Acids in Biology and Medicine by : Stefan Jurga

Download or read book Modified Nucleic Acids in Biology and Medicine written by Stefan Jurga and published by Springer. This book was released on 2016-07-29 with total page 456 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume is comprised of 18 chapters, covering various aspects of DNA modification and RNA modified bases. It also discusses in detail circular RNA, therapeutic oligonucleotides and their different properties. The chemical nature of DNA, RNA, protein and lipids makes these macromolecules easily modifiable, but they are also susceptible to damage from both endogenous and exogenous agents. Alkylation and oxidation show a potential to disrupt the cellular redox equilibrium and cause cellular damage leading to inflammation and even chronic disease. Furthermore, DNA damage can drive mutagenesis and the resulting DNA sequence changes can induce carcinogenesis and cancer progression. Modified nucleosides can occur as a result of oxidative DNA damage and RNA turnover, and are used as markers for various diseases. To function properly some RNA needs to be chemically modified post-transcriptionally. Dysregulation of the RNA-modification pattern or of the levels of the enzymes that catalyze these modifications alters RNA functionality and can result in complex phenotypes, likely due to defects in protein translation. While modifications are best characterized in noncoding ribonucleic acids like tRNA and rRNA, coding mRNAs have also been found to contain modified nucleosides. This book is a valuable resource, not only for graduate students but also researchers in the fields of molecular medicine and molecular biology.

Plant-derived Bioactives

Author : Mallappa Kumara Swamy
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 9811517614
Total Pages : 619 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (115 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Plant-derived Bioactives by : Mallappa Kumara Swamy

Download or read book Plant-derived Bioactives written by Mallappa Kumara Swamy and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-05-11 with total page 619 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Plants produce a vast number of bioactive compounds with different chemical scaffolds, which modulate a diverse range of molecular targets and are used as drugs for treating numerous diseases. Most present-day medicines are derived either from plant compounds or their derivatives, and plant compounds continue to offer limitless reserves for the discovery of new medicines. While different classes of plant compounds, like phenolics, flavonoids, saponins and alkaloids, and their potential pharmacological applications are currently being explored, their curative mechanisms are yet to be understood in detail. This book is divided into 2 volumes and offers detailed information on plant-derived bioactive compounds, including recent research findings. Volume 1, Plant-derived Bioactives: Chemistry and Mode of Action, discusses the chemistry of highly valued plant bioactive compounds and their mode of actions at the molecular level. Volume 2, Plant-derived Bioactives: Production, Properties and Therapeutic Applications, explores the sources, biosynthesis, production, biological properties and therapeutic applications of plant bioactives. Given their scope, these books are valuable resources for members of the scientific community wishing to further explore various medicinal plants and the therapeutic applications of their bioactive compounds. They appeal to scholars, teachers and scientists involved in plant product research, and facilitate the development of innovative new drugs.

Phytochemicals

Author : Toshiki Asao
Publisher : BoD – Books on Demand
ISBN 13 : 1789843774
Total Pages : 220 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (898 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Phytochemicals by : Toshiki Asao

Download or read book Phytochemicals written by Toshiki Asao and published by BoD – Books on Demand. This book was released on 2018-11-07 with total page 220 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Phytochemicals provides original research work and reviews on the sources of phytochemicals, and their roles in disease prevention, supplementation, and accumulation in fruits and vegetables. The roles of anthocyanin, flavonoids, carotenoids, and taxol are presented in separate chapters. Antioxidative and free radicle scavenging activity of phytochemicals is also discussed. The medicinal properties of Opuntia, soybean, sea buckthorn, and gooseberry are presented in a number of chapters. Supplementation of plant extract with phytochemical properties in broiler meals is discussed in one chapter. The final two chapters include the impact of agricultural practices and novel processing technologies on the accumulation of phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables. This book mainly focuses on medicinal plants and the disease-preventing properties of phytochemicals, which will be a useful resource to the reader.

Plant-Based Functional Foods and Phytochemicals

Author : Megh R. Goyal
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 100009023X
Total Pages : 348 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 ( download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Plant-Based Functional Foods and Phytochemicals by : Megh R. Goyal

Download or read book Plant-Based Functional Foods and Phytochemicals written by Megh R. Goyal and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2021-03-30 with total page 348 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Plant-Based Functional Foods and Phytochemicals: From Traditional Knowledge to Present Innovation covers the importance of the therapeutic health benefits of phytochemicals derived from plants. It discusses the isolation of potential bioactive molecules from plant sources along with their value to human health. It focuses on physical characteristics, uniqueness, uses, distribution, traditional and nutritional importance, bioactivities, and future trends of different plant-based foods and food products. Functional foods, beyond providing basic nutrition, may offer a potentially positive effect on health and cures for various disease conditions, such as metabolic disorders (including diabetes), cancer, and chronic inflammatory reactions. The volume looks at these natural products and their bioactive compounds that are increasingly utilized in preventive and therapeutic medications and in the production of pharmaceutical supplements and as food additives to increase functionality. It also describes the concept of extraction of bioactive molecules from plant sources, both conventional and modern extraction techniques, available sources, biochemistry, structural composition, and potential biological activities.

An Evidence-based Approach to Phytochemicals and Other Dietary Factors

Author : Jane Higdon
Publisher : Thieme
ISBN 13 : 3132579963
Total Pages : 588 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (325 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis An Evidence-based Approach to Phytochemicals and Other Dietary Factors by : Jane Higdon

Download or read book An Evidence-based Approach to Phytochemicals and Other Dietary Factors written by Jane Higdon and published by Thieme. This book was released on 2012-11-07 with total page 588 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Now in a completely updated second edition, An Evidence-based Approach to Dietary Phytochemicals and Other Dietary Factors is a trusted resource for all health professionals who need to interpret the explosion of information on the role of a plant-based diet in health and disease. It consolidates a wealth of scientifically accurate, peer-reviewed data on plant foods, dietary phytochemicals, and dietary supplements, and includes information on essential intake recommendations, dietary sources, nutrient and drug interactions, phytochemicals in disease prevention, possible adverse effects, and much more. Special features: All chapters revised and updated, with new sections on choline, coenzyme Q10, L-Carnitine, lipoic acid, and other dietary factors Logically structured for quick access to information: begins with the evidence-based benefits of fruits and vegetables, legumes, nuts, whole grains, coffee, and tea; and goes on to the scientific and clinical data on individual dietary phytochemicals and classes of phytochemicals, including carotenoids, flavonoids, fiber, and more Summaries at the end of each chapter for rapid review Peer-reviewed by experts in the field, ensuring that all material is accurate and up-to-date The well-constructed appendix includes not only a quick reference to diseases and foods and where to find them in the book, but also useful tables on phytochemical-drug interactions, phytochemical-nutrient interactions, and phytochemical-rich foods; a summary of the glycemic index of dietary carbohydrates; and a comprehensive glossary of terms

Antioxidants: Weapons Against Cancer

Author : Susan Zeppieri
Publisher : Susan Zeppieri
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 155 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Antioxidants: Weapons Against Cancer by : Susan Zeppieri

Download or read book Antioxidants: Weapons Against Cancer written by Susan Zeppieri and published by Susan Zeppieri . This book was released on 2023-04-15 with total page 155 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Antioxidants are remarkable molecules that combat oxidative stress caused by free radicals – unstable molecules that can damage our cells and contribute to the development of various diseases, including cancer. In this insightful eBook, you'll delve into the world of antioxidants, their sources, and how they can help protect our bodies from the insidious reach of cancer. As you navigate through "Antioxidants: Your Allies in the Fight Against Cancer", you will discover: The Basics of Antioxidants: Get acquainted with the nature of antioxidants, their functions, and their various sources in food and supplements. Cancer and Oxidative Stress: Understand how free radicals, oxidative stress, and cellular damage contribute to the development of cancer. The Protective Power of Antioxidants: Learn about the various mechanisms through which antioxidants can help prevent cancer and promote cellular health. Optimizing Antioxidant Intake for Cancer Prevention: Gain practical insights and recommendations for incorporating antioxidant-rich foods and supplements into your daily life to reduce cancer risk.

Handbook of Oxidative Stress in Cancer: Therapeutic Aspects

Author : Sajal Chakraborti
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 9811654220
Total Pages : 4078 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (116 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Handbook of Oxidative Stress in Cancer: Therapeutic Aspects by : Sajal Chakraborti

Download or read book Handbook of Oxidative Stress in Cancer: Therapeutic Aspects written by Sajal Chakraborti and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2022-09-28 with total page 4078 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This reference book, which is the second volume of Targeting Oxidative Stress in Cancer, explores oxidative stress as the potential therapeutic target for cancer therapy. The initial chapters discuss the molecular mechanisms of oxidative stress and its effects on different signaling pathways. Subsequently, the sections examine the impact of redox signaling on tumor cell proliferation and consider the therapeutic potential of dietary phytochemicals and nutraceuticals in reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced cancer. In turn, it examines the evidence supporting the use of Vitamin C in cancer management, before presenting various synthetic and natural compounds that have therapeutic implications for oxidative stress-induced cancer. It also explores the correlation between non-coding RNA and oxidative stress. Furthermore, the book summarizes the role of stem cells in ROS-induced cancer therapy and reviews the therapeutic applications of nanoparticles to alter redox haemostasis in cancer cells. Lastly, it explores heat-shock proteins, ubiquitin ligases, and probiotics as potential therapeutic agents in ROS-mediated cancer. This book is a useful resource for basic and translational scientists as well as clinicians interested in the field of oxidative stress and cancer therapy.

Nutraceutical and Functional Food Components

Author : Charis M. Galanakis
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 0323850537
Total Pages : 633 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (238 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Nutraceutical and Functional Food Components by : Charis M. Galanakis

Download or read book Nutraceutical and Functional Food Components written by Charis M. Galanakis and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2021-10-24 with total page 633 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Nutraceutical and Functional Food Components: Effects of Innovative Processing Techniques, Second Edition highlights the impact of recent food industry advances on the nutritional value, functional properties, applications, bioavailability, and bioaccessibility of food components. This second edition also assesses shelf-life, sensory characteristics, and the profile of food products. Covering the most important groups of food components, including lipids, proteins, peptides and amino acids, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamins, aromatic compounds, minerals, glucosinolates, enzymes, this book addresses processing methods for each. Food scientists, technologists, researchers, nutritionists, engineers and chemists, agricultural scientists, other professionals working in the food industry, as well as students studying related fields, will benefit from this updated reference. - Focuses on nutritional value, functional properties, applications, bioavailability and bioaccessibility of food components - Covers food components by describing the effects of thermal and non-thermal technologies - Addresses shelf-life, sensory characteristics and health claims

Dietary Phytochemicals

Author : Chukwuebuka Egbuna
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030729990
Total Pages : 262 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (37 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Dietary Phytochemicals by : Chukwuebuka Egbuna

Download or read book Dietary Phytochemicals written by Chukwuebuka Egbuna and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-08-20 with total page 262 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents comprehensive coverage on the importance of good nutrition in the treatment and management of obesity, cancer and diabetes. Naturally occurring bioactive compounds are ubiquitous in most dietary plants available to humans and provide opportunities for the management of diseases. The text provides information about the major causes of these diseases and their association with nutrition. The text also covers the role of dietary phytochemicals in drug development and their pathways. Later chapters emphasize novel bioactive compounds as anti-diabetic, anti-cancer and anti-obesity agents and describe their mechanisms to regulate cell metabolism. Written by global team of experts, Dietary Phytochemicals: A Source of Novel Bioactive Compounds for the Treatment of Obesity, Cancer and Diabetes describes the potentials of novel phytochemicals, their sources, and underlying mechanism of action. The chapters were drawn systematically and incorporated sequentially to facilitate proper understanding. This book is intended for nutritionists, physicians, medicinal chemists, drug developers in research and development, postgraduate students and scientists in area of nutrition and life sciences.

Skin Aging

Author : Barbara A. Gilchrest
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3540329536
Total Pages : 205 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (43 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Skin Aging by : Barbara A. Gilchrest

Download or read book Skin Aging written by Barbara A. Gilchrest and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2006-04-20 with total page 205 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The topic of skin aging is of growing importance to all working in the field of dermatology, aesthetic medicine and cosmetic medicine. Two internationally well-known and leading experts in the field present a comprehensive state-of-the-art review on all aspects of skin aging. With its clear, concise and reader-friendly format this book has all the potential to become the Bible of skin aging. Every specialist interested in dermatology, aesthetic medicine, cosmetic science, cutaneous biology and aging research will find indispensable information of great value for his or her daily work.

Food Biotechnology

Author : Anthony Pometto
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1420027972
Total Pages : 2011 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (2 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Food Biotechnology by : Anthony Pometto

Download or read book Food Biotechnology written by Anthony Pometto and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2005-10-11 with total page 2011 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Revised and updated to reflect the latest research and advances available, Food Biotechnology, Second Edition demonstrates the effect that biotechnology has on food production and processing. It is an authoritative and exhaustive compilation that discusses the bioconversion of raw food materials to processed products, the improvement of food

Polyphenols in Human Health and Disease

Author : Ronald Ross Watson
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 012398467X
Total Pages : 1504 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (239 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Polyphenols in Human Health and Disease by : Ronald Ross Watson

Download or read book Polyphenols in Human Health and Disease written by Ronald Ross Watson and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2013-10-26 with total page 1504 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Polyphenols in Human Health and Disease documents antioxidant actions of polyphenols in protection of cells and cell organelles, critical for understanding their health-promoting actions to help the dietary supplement industry. The book begins by describing the fundamentals of absorption, metabolism and bioavailability of polyphenols, as well as the effect of microbes on polyphenol structure and function and toxicity. It then examines the role of polyphenols in the treatment of chronic disease, including vascular and cardiac health, obesity and diabetes therapy, cancer treatment and prevention, and more. - Explores neuronal protection by polyphenol metabolites and their application to medical care - Defines modulation of enzyme actions to help researchers see and study polyphenols' mechanisms of action, leading to clinical applications - Includes insights on polyphenols in brain and neurological functions to apply them to the wide range of aging diseases

Handbook of Mango Fruit

Author : Muhammad Siddiq
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119014387
Total Pages : 324 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (19 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Handbook of Mango Fruit by : Muhammad Siddiq

Download or read book Handbook of Mango Fruit written by Muhammad Siddiq and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2017-06-05 with total page 324 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Written by noted experts in the field, Handbook of Mango Fruit: Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology and Nutrition offers a comprehensive resource regarding the production, trade, and consumption of this popular tropical fruit. The authors review the geographic areas where the fruit is grown and harvested, including information on the ever-expanding global marketplace that highlights United States production, imports and exports, and consumption, as well as data on the outlook for the European market. Handbook of Mango Fruit outlines the postharvest handling and packaging techniques and reviews the fruit’s processed products and byproducts that are gleaned from the processing of waste. The authors include information on the nutritional profile of the mango and review the food safety considerations for processing and transport of mangoes. This comprehensive resource: Reviews global mango production trends and countries that are the major exporters and importers of mangoes Explores the burgeoning marketplace for mangoes with special emphasis on the US and European marketplace Assesses latest trends in packaging of and shipping of mangoes Provides in depth coverage on value-added processing and by-products utilization Offers vital information on the innovative processing technologies and nutritional profile of popular tropical fruit Written for anyone involved in the production, marketing, postharvest handling, processing and by-products of mangoes, Handbook of Mango Fruit is a vital resource offering the most current information and guidelines on the burgeoning marketplace as well as the safe handling, production, and distribution of mangoes.

Traffic-Related Air Pollution

Author : Haneen Khreis
Publisher : Elsevier
ISBN 13 : 0128181230
Total Pages : 650 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (281 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Traffic-Related Air Pollution by : Haneen Khreis

Download or read book Traffic-Related Air Pollution written by Haneen Khreis and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2020-08-20 with total page 650 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Traffic-Related Air Pollution synthesizes and maps TRAP and its impact on human health at the individual and population level. The book analyzes mitigating standards and regulations with a focus on cities. It provides the methods and tools for assessing and quantifying the associated road traffic emissions, air pollution, exposure and population-based health impacts, while also illuminating the mechanisms underlying health impacts through clinical and toxicological research. Real-world implications are set alongside policy options, emerging technologies and best practices. Finally, the book recommends ways to influence discourse and policy to better account for the health impacts of TRAP and its societal costs. - Overviews existing and emerging tools to assess TRAP's public health impacts - Examines TRAP's health effects at the population level - Explores the latest technologies and policies--alongside their potential effectiveness and adverse consequences--for mitigating TRAP - Guides on how methods and tools can leverage teaching, practice and policymaking to ameliorate TRAP and its effects