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Critical Issues In Trauma Resolution
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Book Synopsis Critical Issues in Trauma Resolution by : Frank A. Gerbode
Download or read book Critical Issues in Trauma Resolution written by Frank A. Gerbode and published by Loving Healing Press. This book was released on 2015-12-12 with total page 26 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Most common approaches to post-traumatic stress reduction fall into two categories: coping techniques and cathartic techniques. Some therapists give their clients specific in vivo (literally ?in life?) methods for counteracting or coping with the symptoms of PTSD?tools to permit their clients to learn to adapt to, to learn to live with, their PTSD condition. Others encourage their clients to release their feelings, to have a catharsis. The idea is that past traumas generate a certain amount of negative energy or ?emotional charge?, and the therapist?s task is to work with the client to release this charge so that it does not manifest itself as aberrant behavior, negative feelings and attitudes, or psychosomatic conditions. Coping methods and cathartic techniques may help a person to feel better temporarily, but they don?t resolve trauma so that it can no longer exert a negative effect on the client. Clients feel better temporarily after coping or having a catharsis, but the basic charge remains in place, and shortly thereafter they need more therapy. The Need for Anamnesis (recovery of repressed memories) Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR) operates on the principle that a permanent resolution of a case requires anamnesis (recovery of repressed memories), rather than mere catharsis or coping. To understand why clients have to achieve an anamnesis in order to resolve past trauma, we must take a person-centered viewpoint, i.e., the client?s viewpoint and, from that viewpoint, explain what makes trauma traumatic.
Book Synopsis Looking Through the Trauma Lens by : Susan Sluiter
Download or read book Looking Through the Trauma Lens written by Susan Sluiter and published by Loving Healing Press. This book was released on 2013-10-21 with total page 22 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: ÿI developed renewed faith in the power of psychotherapy after I attended a Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR) course in 2011. It opened many doors for me as I began to understand the impact of previously overlooked, objectively minor traumatic incidents on psychological disorders and problems. This article is about the application of this powerful tool over the entire spectrum of psychological problems and disorders and how this brings about impressive and permanent change. The optimal use of this tool in psychotherapy requires a shift in epistemology in which we begin to view mental health through a trauma lens. The definition of psychological trauma can vary. From a TIR perspective, trauma can be defined as any incident that had a negative physical or emotional impact on an individual. This is a very subjective issue as the something could be perceived as traumatic by one individual, but as commonplace and harmless by another. The important thing is the emotional and physical impact the incident had on the individual, its subjective impact. The reason it is so important to view trauma in the broadest way possible is because it explains the chronic mood states of our clients as well as how subconscious intentions and automatic emotional responses affect their current lives. These will be explained below. Traumatic incidents, when understood in the broadest sense possible, have a massive effect on our neurobiology, emotional states and behavioral patterns. Therefore, they can be seen as the driving force behind almost all psychological problems and disorders. When I say traumatic incidents ?in the broadest sense possible,? I refer to the everyday incidents of trauma that are objectively perceived as minor, such as an embarrassing comment by a teacher, conflict with a friend, breaking your mother?s expensive vase, etc. It involves an understanding of how the emotional knocks we take on a daily basis affect our neurobiology and continue to have an impact on us in later life. The understanding of subconscious intentions, automatic emotional reactions and responses and chronic mood states are so crucial when it comes to looking at mental health through a trauma lens. Minor and major psychological and physical trauma involves a complex description of the effects on the brain. This article includes detailed case studies including specific incidents such as birth trauma and jealousy and rage. We will look in detail at how trauma results in Goleman?s ?Amygdala Hijacking? and how we can help the client break destructive cycles. I also explain why sheer willpower is insufficient to change behavior in the face of traumatic restimulation.ÿ Additionally, the article explains how TIR avoids re-traumatization even as clients revisit past incidents.
Author :National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Publisher :National Academies Press ISBN 13 :0309442850 Total Pages :531 pages Book Rating :4.3/5 (94 download)
Book Synopsis A National Trauma Care System by : National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
Download or read book A National Trauma Care System written by National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2016-10-12 with total page 531 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Advances in trauma care have accelerated over the past decade, spurred by the significant burden of injury from the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Between 2005 and 2013, the case fatality rate for United States service members injured in Afghanistan decreased by nearly 50 percent, despite an increase in the severity of injury among U.S. troops during the same period of time. But as the war in Afghanistan ends, knowledge and advances in trauma care developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) over the past decade from experiences in Afghanistan and Iraq may be lost. This would have implications for the quality of trauma care both within the DoD and in the civilian setting, where adoption of military advances in trauma care has become increasingly common and necessary to improve the response to multiple civilian casualty events. Intentional steps to codify and harvest the lessons learned within the military's trauma system are needed to ensure a ready military medical force for future combat and to prevent death from survivable injuries in both military and civilian systems. This will require partnership across military and civilian sectors and a sustained commitment from trauma system leaders at all levels to assure that the necessary knowledge and tools are not lost. A National Trauma Care System defines the components of a learning health system necessary to enable continued improvement in trauma care in both the civilian and the military sectors. This report provides recommendations to ensure that lessons learned over the past decade from the military's experiences in Afghanistan and Iraq are sustained and built upon for future combat operations and translated into the U.S. civilian system.
Book Synopsis Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR) and Primary Resolution of the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) by : Robert H. Moore
Download or read book Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR) and Primary Resolution of the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) written by Robert H. Moore and published by Loving Healing Press. This book was released on 2013-11-16 with total page 21 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: ÿ?Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR) and Primary Resolution of the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder? provides a brief discussion illuminating the concept of PTSD: how it arises, what maintains it, how it progresses to increasingly constrain a person?s life. PTSD also involves faulty thinking, but focus on such present-time reactions is ineffective without addressing the original trauma. PTSD is the consequence of attempts to avoid re-experiencing. Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR) is a technique for overcoming this tendency, allowing the sufferer to experience the traumatic incident in a special, safe way. In the case of multiple traumas, this can be complex, needing to deal with each. It is necessary to find the original trauma, which invariably has led to more recent ones, and fully resolve it in one sitting. This provides complete relief from the burden of the past trauma. An individual session, designed to handles a single incident, may take between 20 minutes and 3 hours (average 1.5 hours). The primary incident may be obvious to the sufferer, or hidden. People with anxiety problems but no flashbacks may find forgotten traumas, the resolution of which through ?Thematic TIR? can eliminate current symptoms. Currently occurring emotional and somatic symptoms are traced back in time until a root incident is found. Emotion and thinking are intertwined: correcting one will correct the other. TIR focuses on the emotion. Once the trauma is fully processed, the person is able to think rationally about it. ?Dr Moore?s monograph will guide you in deciding whether you will benefit from TIR, and may inspire you to train to become a ?facilitator? who can help others with this powerful family of techniques.? --Bob Rich, PhD, www.anxiety-and-depressionhelp.comÿ
Book Synopsis Trauma and Recovery by : Judith Lewis Herman
Download or read book Trauma and Recovery written by Judith Lewis Herman and published by Basic Books. This book was released on 2015-07-07 with total page 337 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this groundbreaking book, a leading clinical psychiatrist redefines how we think about and treat victims of trauma. A "stunning achievement" that remains a "classic for our generation." (Bessel van der Kolk, M.D., author of The Body Keeps the Score). Trauma and Recovery is revered as the seminal text on understanding trauma survivors. By placing individual experience in a broader political frame, Harvard psychiatrist Judith Herman argues that psychological trauma is inseparable from its social and political context. Drawing on her own research on incest, as well as a vast literature on combat veterans and victims of political terror, she shows surprising parallels between private horrors like child abuse and public horrors like war. Hailed by the New York Times as "one of the most important psychiatry works to be published since Freud," Trauma and Recovery is essential reading for anyone who seeks to understand how we heal and are healed.
Book Synopsis Traumatic Incident Reduction by : Victor R. Volkman
Download or read book Traumatic Incident Reduction written by Victor R. Volkman and published by Loving Healing Press. This book was released on 2008-01-01 with total page 181 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Within this reference are synopses of several Traumatic Incident Reduction research projects from the early 1990s to today. Each article, in the researcher's own words, provides new insights into the effectiveness of TIR.
Book Synopsis Critical Issues in Peace and Conflict Studies by : Thomas Matyók
Download or read book Critical Issues in Peace and Conflict Studies written by Thomas Matyók and published by Lexington Books. This book was released on 2011-05-19 with total page 447 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Critical Issues in Peace and Conflict Studies: Theory, Practice, and Pedagogy, edited by Thomas Matyók, Jessica Senehi, and Sean Byrne, discusses critical issues in the emerging field of Peace and Conflict Studies, and suggests a framework for the future development of the fie...
Book Synopsis Principles of Trauma Therapy by : John Briere
Download or read book Principles of Trauma Therapy written by John Briere and published by SAGE. This book was released on 2006-03-21 with total page 281 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Principles of Trauma Therapy provides a creative synthesis of cognitive-behavioral, relational/psychodynamic, and psychopharmacologic approaches to the "real world" treatment of acute and chronic posttraumatic states. Grounded in empirically-supported trauma treatment techniques, and adapted to the complexities of actual clinical practice, it is a hands-on resource for both front-line clinicians in public mental health and those in private practice.
Book Synopsis Retraumatization by : Melanie P. Duckworth
Download or read book Retraumatization written by Melanie P. Duckworth and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2012-05-22 with total page 539 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Exposure to potentially traumatic events puts individuals at risk for developing a variety of psychological disorders; the complexities involved in treating them are numerous and have serious repercussions. How should diagnostic criteria be defined? How can we help a client who does not present with traditional PTSD symptoms? The mechanisms of human behavior need to be understood and treatment needs to be tested before we can move beyond traditional diagnostic criteria in designing and implementing treatment. No better guide than Retraumatization exists to fulfill these goals. The editors and contributors, all highly regarded experts, accomplish six objectives, to: define retraumatization outline the controversies related to it provide an overview of theoretical models present data related to the frequency of occurrence of different forms of trauma detail the most reliable strategies for assessment to provide an overview of treatments. Contained within is the most current information on prevention and treatment approaches for specific populations. All chapters are uniformly structured and address epidemiological data, clinical descriptions, assessment, diagnosis and prognosis, and prevention. It is an indispensible resource that expands readers’ knowledge and skills, and will encourage dialogue in a field that has many unanswered questions.
Book Synopsis The SAFER-R Model by : George Everly, Jr.
Download or read book The SAFER-R Model written by George Everly, Jr. and published by . This book was released on 2017-04 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Psychological Crisis Intervention: The SAFER-R Model is designed to provide the reader with a simple set of guidelines for the provision of psychological first aid (PFA). The model of psychological first aid (PFA) for individuals presented in this volume is the SAFER-R model developed by the authors. Arguably it is the most widely used tactical model of crisis intervention in the world with roughly 1 million individuals trained in its operational and derivative guidelines. This model of PFA is not a therapy model nor a substitute for therapy. Rather it is designed to help crisis interventionists stabile and mitigate acute crisis reactions in individuals, as opposed to groups. Guidelines for triage and referrals are also provided. Before plunging into the step-by-step guidelines, a brief history and terminological framework is provided. Lastly, recommendations for addressing specific psychological challenges (suicidal ideation, resistance to seeking professional psychological support, and depression) are provided.
Book Synopsis Progressive Counting Within a Phase Model of Trauma-Informed Treatment by : Ricky Greenwald
Download or read book Progressive Counting Within a Phase Model of Trauma-Informed Treatment written by Ricky Greenwald and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2013-06-07 with total page 343 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Clinicians recognize trauma & loss as a prominent source of clients' problems. Progressive counting represents a significant advance in trauma treatment, because it is about as efficient, effective, and well-tolerated as EMDR while being far simpler for therapists to master and do well. PC's value has already been supported by two open trials and a controlled study. Are you ready to provide therapy that routinely affects profound healing and lasting change? This book will show you how.
Book Synopsis The Dissociation of Abigail by : Alan L. Hensley
Download or read book The Dissociation of Abigail written by Alan L. Hensley and published by Loving Healing Press. This book was released on 2015-12-04 with total page 33 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: ÿAmong the most profound manifestations of childhood trauma is that of Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID). Theorists suggest DID can be both adaptive and dysfunctional in nature. "The Dissociation of Abigail" will illustrate how childhood trauma can affect the perception, cognition, and behavior of an individual into their adult years. This case study will discuss client intake, assessment, and potential treatment.ÿ Abigail, a tall, attractive, and well-groomed divorced mother of 5 children in her late 30s, presents herself in the therapist?s office complaining of the inability to remember key periods of her life. Discussion with the client reveals she is, in fact, extremely intelligent, intuitive, and well versed on a myriad of subjects; including an acute knowledge of psychology that would arguably be the envy of many professional therapists. Within moments of beginning the intake, the therapist becomes keenly aware that this client is also exceedingly spiritual, with the ability to quote chapter and verse of biblical reference, not only as a matter of reference, but with the insight to integrate it in context with a myriad of contemporary issues.ÿ As the therapist listens, Abigail recounts a lifetime of sexual abuse and boundary violations by family members of not only herself, but also two of her children. The client complains of an inability to recall diverse periods of her life. Recently, however, she has begun experiencing recurring psychologically and emotionally distressing, thoughts, images, and dreams of satanic rituals involving family members and persons and places of her childhood in which she is forced to participate. The client offers her life has been accentuated with dysfunctional relationships. Consequently, she is prone to reclusion, and has little interest in outside persons, places, or activities, which significantly impairs social, occupational, and other activities. Predisposed to consider Abigail?s symptoms in context of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), the therapist is presented with two lengthy journals Abigail has maintained at the request of her current therapist. Within the first journal, disjointed transitions are noted, alternating between first, second, and third person, present- and past-tense. While the journal opens with eloquence and exceptionally light-handed penmanship and flourishes, it unexpectedly transitions to heavy-handedness with angry intonations directed at Abigail herself. As the journey through the journals continues, several other such transitions are noted, along with highly distinctive differences in penmanship and writing style.ÿ More importantly, the writings reflect distinct differences in cognitive process. Cryptanalysis of the writings discloses six psychologically significant profiles, as if six different individuals were writing the journals. Disjointed and appearing unexpectedly independent junctures, they appeared to be conflicted and often vying for dominance in expressing their opinions and beliefs. If one were to thematically categorize these six profiles into individual context, they would find the intellectual (strives for intellect and perfection); the preacher (core of morals, ethics, and values); the abuser (the mother); the victim (childlike; timid, shy, and afraid); the reckoner (endeavors to evoke shame and deliver punishment); and a highly pronounced highly sexual vixen personality (sexually motivated, arguably the personality for male gratification/survival).ÿ
Book Synopsis Beyond Trauma by : Victor R. Volkman
Download or read book Beyond Trauma written by Victor R. Volkman and published by Loving Healing Press. This book was released on 2005-01-01 with total page 357 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Victor Volkman has created a tool that takes the mystery out of one of the more remarkably effective clinical procedures in a way that can help millions of people revitalize and improve their lives. To those desperate people who have experienced trauma or tragedy, this process is a pathway to dealing with their feelings and getting on with their lives. In the new book Beyond Trauma, Conversations on Traumatic Incident Reduction Volkman presents a series of conversations with a wide range of people from many different backgrounds and experiences. Each provides his or her perspective on Traumatic Incident Reduction, or TIR for short. The book explains the techniques used by professionals and patients to help people sort out, resolve and overcome the negative effects of painful suffering. Untold countless people have to deal with trauma in a wide variety of situations: Soldiers who experience war or injury, families dealing with death, chemical or substance abuse, parental neglect, child or sexual abuse, terrorism, crime and punishment. Beyond Trauma: Conversations on Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR), is unique in that it addresses both people suffering from the effects of traumatic stress and the practitioners who help them. This method has been effective in dealing with many areas of trauma, including Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), in such diverse groups as veterans, children, 9/11 survivors, motor vehicle accident and sexual abuse survivors. TIR is a brief, one-on-one, non-hypnotic, person-centered, simple, and highly structured method for permanently eliminating the negative effects of past traumas. Contributors include world-renowned experts in traumatology including Windy Dryden, Ph.D., Joyce Carbonell, Ph.D., and TIR's developer Frank A. Gerbode, M.D. Beyond Trauma highlights stories of TIR helping survivors to regain control of their lives. This book will be life changing not only for survivors of traumatic incidents but also for the professionals committed to helping them. "Not in 30+ years of practice have I used a more remarkably effective clinical procedure." --Robert H. Moore, Ph.D. What people are saying about this book: . "Beyond Trauma: Conversations on Traumatic Incident Reduction is an excellent resource to begin one's mastery in this area of practice." --Michael G. Tancyus, LCSW, DCSW, Augusta Behavioral Health . "I have found Beyond Trauma to be EXCEPTIONALLY HELPFUL in understanding and practicing TIR in broad and diverse areas of practice, not just in traditional trauma work. The information from various points of view is really priceless." --Gerry Bock, Registered Clinical Counsellor, B.C. Canada . "Beyond Trauma offers PTSD sufferers a glimpse at a light at the end of the tunnel, while providing mental health workers with a revolutionary technique that could increase their success rate with traumatized clients" --Jeni Mayer, Body Mind Spirit Magazine . "Having read the book, I feel that I have already become better at working with distressed clients." -- Bob Rich, Ph.D.
Book Synopsis The End of Trauma by : George A. Bonanno
Download or read book The End of Trauma written by George A. Bonanno and published by Basic Books. This book was released on 2021-09-07 with total page 282 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With “groundbreaking research on the psychology of resilience” (Adam Grant), a top expert on human trauma argues that we vastly overestimate how common PTSD is in and fail to recognize how resilient people really are. After 9/11, mental health professionals flocked to New York to handle what everyone assumed would be a flood of trauma cases. Oddly, the flood never came. In The End of Trauma, pioneering psychologist George A. Bonanno argues that we failed to predict the psychological response to 9/11 because most of what we understand about trauma is wrong. For starters, it’s not nearly as common as we think. In fact, people are overwhelmingly resilient to adversity. What we often interpret as PTSD are signs of a natural process of learning how to deal with a specific situation. We can cope far more effectively if we understand how this process works. Drawing on four decades of research, Bonanno explains what makes us resilient, why we sometimes aren’t, and how we can better handle traumatic stress. Hopeful and humane, The End of Trauma overturns everything we thought we knew about how people respond to hardship.
Book Synopsis Trauma-Informed Healthcare Approaches by : Megan R. Gerber
Download or read book Trauma-Informed Healthcare Approaches written by Megan R. Gerber and published by Springer. This book was released on 2019-04-12 with total page 227 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Interpersonal trauma is ubiquitous and its impact on health has long been understood. Recently, however, the critical importance of this issue has been magnified in the public eye. A burgeoning literature has demonstrated the impact of traumatic experiences on mental and physical health, and many potential interventions have been proposed. This volume serves as a detailed, practical guide to trauma-informed care. Chapters provide guidance to both healthcare providers and organizations on strategies for adopting, implementing and sustaining principles of trauma-informed care. The first section maps out the scope of the problem and defines specific types of interpersonal trauma. The authors then turn to discussion of adaptations to care for special populations, including sexual and gender minority persons, immigrants, male survivors and Veterans as these groups often require more nuanced approaches. Caring for trauma-exposed patients can place a strain on clinicians, and approaches for fostering resilience and promoting wellness among staff are presented next. Finally, the book covers concrete trauma-informed clinical strategies in adult and pediatric primary care, and women’s health/maternity care settings. Using a case-based approach, the expert authors provide real-world front line examples of the impact trauma-informed clinical approaches have on patients’ quality of life, sense of comfort, and trust. Case examples are discussed along with evidence based approaches that demonstrate improved health outcomes. Written by experts in the field, Trauma-Informed Healthcare Approaches is the definitive resource for improving quality care for patients who have experienced trauma.
Book Synopsis Substance Dependency, PTSD and Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR) in South Africa: A Social Work Perspective by : Elca Erlank
Download or read book Substance Dependency, PTSD and Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR) in South Africa: A Social Work Perspective written by Elca Erlank and published by Loving Healing Press. This book was released on 2013-01-01 with total page 9 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This article briefly reflects the extent to which substance dependency and traumatic events, which may lead to a diagnosis of a post-traumatic stress disorder, are becoming a feature of life all over South Africa. Many social workers are familiar with current evidence-based approaches and are skilled at adapting them to local cultural and contextual conditions. Exploring and continuing learning various evidence-based approaches to render more effective services are an important aim of social work practice. Metapsychology and Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR), an Applied Metapsychology technique, are introduced to challenge social workers to render more integrated and effective services. The prevalence and comorbidity of substance dependency and PTSD Looking at statistics about substance dependency, as well as the high tendency of being a victim of trauma in South Africa, is it evident that social workers are confronted and challenged on a daily basis to improve their knowledge and skills in this regard. In South Africa, drug consumption is twice the world norm (CDA-2011) and 15% of South Africa's population has a drug problem (CDA-2011). Over 30% of the South African population have an alcohol problem or are at risk of having one and alcohol affects 17.5 million of South Africans. Studies show that people who start drinking before the age of 15 are four times more likely to become alcoholics than people starting to drink later in their life. The recently-released United Nations World Drug Report had named South Africa as one of the drug capitals of the world. When it comes to the abuse of alcohol and usage of dagga, this country is rated to be one of the top ten narcotics and alcohol abusers in the world (Addiction Drug Alcohol Statistics, S.A. 2012 About the Author Elca Erlank, Ph. D. became a TIR trainer in 2012. She has trained with both Gerald French and Yvonne Retief. Elca is a social worker, in South Africa with 22 years experience in various related fields of social work services. She had specialized in the field of substance dependence and received her doctorate degree in 2003. From the Metapsychology Monographs Series at www.TIRBook.com.
Book Synopsis Brief Treatment of Trauma-Related Symptoms in Incarcerated Females with Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR) by : Pamela V. Valentine
Download or read book Brief Treatment of Trauma-Related Symptoms in Incarcerated Females with Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR) written by Pamela V. Valentine and published by Loving Healing Press. This book was released on 2013-11-16 with total page 14 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: ÿThe following article is based on materials presented at the Proceedings of the Tenth National Symposium on Doctoral Research in Social Work (1998).ÿ Statement of the Research Problem Conducted in the Tallahassee Federal Correction Institute (FCI) in Florida, this experimental outcome study examined the effectiveness of Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR) (Gerbode, 1989) in treating trauma-related symptoms of female inmates who were victims of interpersonal violence. TIR is a brief (in this case, one session), straightforward, memory-based, therapeutic intervention most similar to imaginal flooding. A memory-based intervention implies that the symptoms currently experienced by a client are related to a past event and that lasting resolution of those symptoms involves focusing on the memory rather than focusing on symptom management. TIR is straightforward in that the roles of both the client and therapist are very clearly defined and strictly followed.ÿ There are several reasons for studying the influence of TIR on previously traumatized female inmates. Since 1980, the rate of family homicide has increased fivefold (Joffe, Wilson, & Wolfe, 1986). Women are the target of much violence, as illustrated by the following: 75% of adult women have been victims of at least one sexual assault, robbery, or burglary (Resnick, et al., 1991); and 53.7% are victims of more than one crime. Abundant data suggest that PTSD can result from having been a victim of crime or having witnessed a violent crime (Astin, Lawrence, & Foy, 1993; Breslau, Davis, Andreski & Peterson, 1991; Resnick, et al., 1991). Therefore, the number of women affected by PTSD is growing as violence and sexual abuse increase in society as a whole (Ursano & Fullerton, 1990). There is a lack of empirical research on the traumatic effects of interpersonal violence (e.g. robbery, rape, incest, physical assault). Since inmates are typically victims of interpersonal violence (Gabel, Johnston, Baker, & Cannon, 1993), the inmate population studied was particularly suitable for TIR. For more information on TIR, see www.TIR.org
