Convertible Securities A Complete Guide To Investment And Corporate Financing Strategies

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Convertible Securities: A Complete Guide to Investment and Corporate Financing Strategies

Author : Tracy V. Maitland
Publisher : McGraw Hill Professional
ISBN 13 : 1260462919
Total Pages : 559 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (64 download)

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Book Synopsis Convertible Securities: A Complete Guide to Investment and Corporate Financing Strategies by : Tracy V. Maitland

Download or read book Convertible Securities: A Complete Guide to Investment and Corporate Financing Strategies written by Tracy V. Maitland and published by McGraw Hill Professional. This book was released on 2022-04-05 with total page 559 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The definitive guide to reduced-risk investing in the $600+ billion global convertible securities market Authored by professionals at Advent Capital Management―one of the world’s leaders on convertible securities―Convertible Securities describes the mechanics and behavior of convertible securities in comprehensive yet easy-to-understand language. Written for discerning investors, including corporate CIOs and CFOs, financial investment academics, and financial advisors, Convertible Securities provides quantitative insights and theories presented in a methodical and understandable format using recent and relevant examples. It explains the mathematical underpinnings of convertible securities and offers thorough analyses of convertibles from every angle, including those of various types of investors and issuers and numerous related disciplines (tax, performance analysis, accounting, risk management, and others). Topics include: Unique and Valuable Features in Convertible Bonds and Convertible Preferred Stocks How Savvy Investors Use Convertibles in their Portfolios How CFOs Optimize Corporate Capital Structures with Convertibles Valuation & Quantitative Properties of Convertibles Psychology and Investing in Convertibles Asset Allocation Models that Weigh the Advantages of Convertibles Practical Considerations for Convertible Investors―and much more! A high value-added asset class with a unique record of achieving equity-like returns with less risk than outright investment in common stocks, convertible securities are perfect for times when markets are at their most unpredictable. Convertible Securities offers everything you need to make them work for you, now and in the future.

International Handbook of Convertible Securities

Author : Thomas Noddings
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1135968667
Total Pages : 390 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (359 download)

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Book Synopsis International Handbook of Convertible Securities by : Thomas Noddings

Download or read book International Handbook of Convertible Securities written by Thomas Noddings and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2013-12-16 with total page 390 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: First published in 2001. The revision of this important work contains all new data on the long-overlooked convertible securities market. It offers invaluable information on the analytical as well as the statistical tools which investors need to add quality to their investment portfolios. Topics include: * Convertible securities as an asset class and as an alternative investment * Market capitalization of convertible securities * An overview of the equity warrant market * Special provisions in the warrant markets * Finding undervalued warrants * Convertible bond hedging strategies * Portfolio management.

Convertible Arbitrage

Author : Nick P. Calamos
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1118045661
Total Pages : 306 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (18 download)

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Book Synopsis Convertible Arbitrage by : Nick P. Calamos

Download or read book Convertible Arbitrage written by Nick P. Calamos and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2011-01-19 with total page 306 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Minimize risk and maximize profits with convertible arbitrage Convertible arbitrage involves purchasing a portfolio of convertible securities-generally convertible bonds-and hedging a portion of the equity risk by selling short the underlying common stock. This increasingly popular strategy, which is especially useful during times of market volatility, allows individuals to increase their returns while decreasing their risks. Convertible Arbitrage offers a thorough explanation of this unique investment strategy. Filled with in-depth insights from an expert in the field, this comprehensive guide explores a wide range of convertible topics. Readers will be introduced to a variety of models for convertible analysis, "the Greeks," as well as the full range of hedges, including titled and leveraged hedges, as well as swaps, nontraditional hedges, and option hedging. They will also gain a firm understanding of alternative convertible structures, the use of foreign convertibles in hedging, risk management at the portfolio level, and trading and hedging risks. Convertible Arbitrage eliminates any confusion by clearly differentiating convertible arbitrage strategy from other hedging techniques such as long-short equity, merger and acquisition arbitrage, and fixed-income arbitrage. Nick Calamos (Naperville, IL) oversees research and portfolio management for Calamos Asset Management, Inc. Since 1983 his experience has centered on convertible securities investment. He received his undergraduate degree in economics from Southern Illinois University and an MS in finance from Northern Illinois University.

Pricing Convertible Bonds

Author : Kevin B. Connolly
Publisher : Wiley
ISBN 13 : 9780471978725
Total Pages : 272 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (787 download)

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Book Synopsis Pricing Convertible Bonds by : Kevin B. Connolly

Download or read book Pricing Convertible Bonds written by Kevin B. Connolly and published by Wiley. This book was released on 1998-10-15 with total page 272 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Convertible Bonds (CB) market is growing all the time. To date, over one trillion dollars worth of CBs are in circulation. Corporations are finding this source of fund-raising more and more attractive. And for different reasons, the buyers are finding CBs increasingly attractive investment vehicles. There are few works on the subject of pricing convertible bonds. Most books discussing derivative products cover all details of pricing futures and options in minute detail. Convertible bonds and warrants are usually mentioned as an after thought in the latter chapters. This is the first book to address the very complex issue of pricing convertible bonds. Kevin Connolly, Researcher of complex volatility trading for Refco Overseas Ltd. and Lecturer at City University Business School and London Guildhall University, has put together an excellent treatment of pricing convertible bonds, delving into topics such as: * Returns distributions and associated descriptive statistics * Modeling the share price process * The basic convertible bond model * Introducing the complications * Convertible bond sensitivities * Using equity warrant models to price CBs * Refix clauses Fund managers, hedge players/traders, undergraduates and postgraduates will find this book invaluable. Easy to understand software on Microsoft Excel spreadsheets is also supplied.

Handbook of Corporate Equity Derivatives and Equity Capital Markets

Author : Juan Ramirez
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119950775
Total Pages : 452 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (199 download)

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Book Synopsis Handbook of Corporate Equity Derivatives and Equity Capital Markets by : Juan Ramirez

Download or read book Handbook of Corporate Equity Derivatives and Equity Capital Markets written by Juan Ramirez and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2011-09-07 with total page 452 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Equity strategies are closely guarded secrets and as such, there is very little written about how investors and corporate can utilise equity vehicles as part of their growth strategies. In this much-needed book, industry expert Juan Ramiraz guides readers through the whole range of equity derivative instruments, showing how they can be applied to a range of equity capital market situations, including hedging, yield enhancement and disposal of strategic stakes, mergers and acquisitions, stock options plan hedging, equity financings, share buybacks and other transactions on treasury shares, bank regulatory capital arbitrage and tax driven situations. The book includes case studies to highlight how equity derivative strategies have been used in real-life situations.

The Handbook of Convertible Bonds

Author : Jan De Spiegeleer
Publisher : Wiley
ISBN 13 : 9780470689684
Total Pages : 400 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (896 download)

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Book Synopsis The Handbook of Convertible Bonds by : Jan De Spiegeleer

Download or read book The Handbook of Convertible Bonds written by Jan De Spiegeleer and published by Wiley. This book was released on 2011-03-14 with total page 400 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This is a complete guide to the pricing and risk management of convertible bond portfolios. Convertible bonds can be complex because they have both equity and debt like features and new market entrants will usually find that they have either a knowledge of fixed income mathematics or of equity derivatives and therefore have no idea how to incorporate credit and equity together into their existing pricing tools. Part I of the book covers the impact that the 2008 credit crunch has had on the markets, it then shows how to build up a convertible bond and introduces the reader to the traditional convertible vocabulary of yield to put, premium, conversion ratio, delta, gamma, vega and parity. The market of stock borrowing and lending will also be covered in detail. Using an intuitive approach based on the Jensen inequality, the authors will also show the advantages of using a hybrid to add value - pre 2008, many investors labelled convertible bonds as 'investing with no downside', there are of course plenty of 2008 examples to prove that they were wrong. The authors then go onto give a complete explanation of the different features that can be embedded in convertible bond. Part II shows readers how to price convertibles. It covers the different parameters used in valuation models: credit spreads, volatility, interest rates and borrow fees and Maturity. Part III covers investment strategies for equity, fixed income and hedge fund investors and includes dynamic hedging and convertible arbitrage. Part IV explains the all important risk management part of the process in detail. This is a highly practical book, all products priced are real world examples and numerical examples are not limited to hypothetical convertibles. It is a must read for anyone wanting to safely get into this highly liquid, high return market.

Applied Corporate Finance

Author : Aswath Damodaran
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1118808932
Total Pages : 663 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (188 download)

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Book Synopsis Applied Corporate Finance by : Aswath Damodaran

Download or read book Applied Corporate Finance written by Aswath Damodaran and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2014-10-27 with total page 663 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Aswath Damodaran, distinguished author, Professor of Finance, and David Margolis, Teaching Fellow at the NYU Stern School of Business, has delivered the newest edition of Applied Corporate Finance. This readable text provides the practical advice students and practitioners need rather than a sole concentration on debate theory, assumptions, or models. Like no other text of its kind, Applied Corporate Finance, 4th Edition applies corporate finance to real companies. It now contains six real-world core companies to study and follow. Business decisions are classified for students into three groups: investment, financing, and dividend decisions.

Convertible Securities: The Latest Instruments, Portfolio Strategies, and Valuation Analysis, Revised Edition

Author : John P. Calamos
Publisher : McGraw Hill Professional
ISBN 13 : 9781557389213
Total Pages : 440 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (892 download)

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Book Synopsis Convertible Securities: The Latest Instruments, Portfolio Strategies, and Valuation Analysis, Revised Edition by : John P. Calamos

Download or read book Convertible Securities: The Latest Instruments, Portfolio Strategies, and Valuation Analysis, Revised Edition written by John P. Calamos and published by McGraw Hill Professional. This book was released on 1998-06-22 with total page 440 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The definitive book on the subject, Convertible Securities explains the various types of convertible instruments, valuation and pricing methods, and investment strategies. Completely updated from its first edition, this guide includes chapters on international convertibles and asset allocation strategies for the institutional investor.

Guide to Financial Markets

Author : Marc Levinson
Publisher : The Economist
ISBN 13 : 1541742516
Total Pages : 250 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (417 download)

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Book Synopsis Guide to Financial Markets by : Marc Levinson

Download or read book Guide to Financial Markets written by Marc Levinson and published by The Economist. This book was released on 2018-07-24 with total page 250 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The revised and updated 7th edition of this highly regarded book brings the reader right up to speed with the latest financial market developments, and provides a clear and incisive guide to a complex world that even those who work in it often find hard to understand. In chapters on the markets that deal with money, foreign exchange, equities, bonds, commodities, financial futures, options and other derivatives, the book examines why these markets exist, how they work, and who trades in them, and gives a run-down of the factors that affect prices and rates. Business history is littered with disasters that occurred because people involved their firms with financial instruments they didn't properly understand. If they had had this book they might have avoided their mistakes. For anyone wishing to understand financial markets, there is no better guide.

Efficiently Inefficient

Author : Lasse Heje Pedersen
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 0691196095
Total Pages : 368 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (911 download)

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Book Synopsis Efficiently Inefficient by : Lasse Heje Pedersen

Download or read book Efficiently Inefficient written by Lasse Heje Pedersen and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2019-09-17 with total page 368 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Efficiently Inefficient describes the key trading strategies used by hedge funds and demystifies the secret world of active investing. Leading financial economist Lasse Heje Pedersen combines the latest research with real-world examples and interviews with top hedge fund managers to show how certain trading strategies make money - and why they sometimes don't. -- from back cover.

Corporate Finance

Author : Pierre Vernimmen
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1118849299
Total Pages : 994 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (188 download)

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Book Synopsis Corporate Finance by : Pierre Vernimmen

Download or read book Corporate Finance written by Pierre Vernimmen and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2014-10-09 with total page 994 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Merging theory and practice into a comprehensive, highly-anticipated text Corporate Finance continues its legacy as one of the most popular financial textbooks, with well-established content from a diverse and highly respected author team. Unique in its features, this valuable text blends theory and practice with a direct, succinct style and commonsense presentation. Readers will be introduced to concepts in a situational framework, followed by a detailed discussion of techniques and tools. This latest edition includes new information on venture finance and debt structuring, and has been updated throughout with the most recent statistical tables. The companion website provides statistics, graphs, charts, articles, computer models, and classroom tools, and the free monthly newsletter keeps readers up to date on the latest happenings in the field. The authors have generously made themselves available for questions, promising an answer in seventy-two hours. Emphasizing how key concepts relate to real-world situations is what makes Corporate Finance a valuable reference with real relevance to the professional and student alike. Readers will gain insight into the methods and tools that shape the industry, allowing them to: Analyze investments with regard to hurdle rates, cash flows, side costs, and more Delve into the financing process and learn the tools and techniques of valuation Understand cash dividends and buybacks, spinoffs, and divestitures Explore the link between valuation and corporate finance As the global economy begins to recover, access to the most current information and statistics will be required. To remain relevant in the evolving financial environment, practitioners will need a deep understanding of the mechanisms at work. Corporate Finance provides the expert guidance and detailed explanations for those requiring a strong foundational knowledge, as well as more advanced corporate finance professionals.

Fixed-Income Securities

Author : Lionel Martellini
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 0470868228
Total Pages : 662 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (78 download)

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Book Synopsis Fixed-Income Securities by : Lionel Martellini

Download or read book Fixed-Income Securities written by Lionel Martellini and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2005-09-27 with total page 662 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This textbook will be designed for fixed-income securities courses taught on MSc Finance and MBA courses. There is currently no suitable text that offers a 'Hull-type' book for the fixed income student market. This book aims to fill this need. The book will contain numerous worked examples, excel spreadsheets, with a building block approach throughout. A key feature of the book will be coverage of both traditional and alternative investment strategies in the fixed-income market, for example, the book will cover the modern strategies used by fixed-income hedge funds. The text will be supported by a set of PowerPoint slides for use by the lecturer First textbook designed for students written on fixed-income securities - a growing market Contains numerous worked examples throughout Includes coverage of important topics often omitted in other books i.e. deriving the zero yield curve, deriving credit spreads, hedging and also covers interest rate and credit derivatives

A Pragmatist's Guide to Leveraged Finance

Author : Robert S. Kricheff
Publisher : FT Press
ISBN 13 : 0132855240
Total Pages : 282 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (328 download)

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Book Synopsis A Pragmatist's Guide to Leveraged Finance by : Robert S. Kricheff

Download or read book A Pragmatist's Guide to Leveraged Finance written by Robert S. Kricheff and published by FT Press. This book was released on 2012-02-27 with total page 282 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The high-yield leveraged bond and loan market (“junk bonds”) is now valued at $3+ trillion in North America, €1 trillion in Europe, and another $1 trillion in emerging markets. What’s more, based on the maturity schedules of current debt, it’s poised for massive growth. To successfully issue, evaluate, and invest in high-yield debt, however, financial professionals need credit and bond analysis skills specific to these instruments. Now, for the first time, there’s a complete, practical, and expert tutorial and workbook covering all facets of modern leveraged finance analysis. In A Pragmatist’s Guide to Leveraged Finance, Credit Suisse managing director Bob Kricheff explains why conventional analysis techniques are inadequate for leveraged instruments, clearly defines the unique challenges sellers and buyers face, walks step-by-step through deriving essential data for pricing and decision-making, and demonstrates how to apply it. Using practical examples, sample documents, Excel worksheets, and graphs, Kricheff covers all this, and much more: yields, spreads, and total return; ratio analysis of liquidity and asset value; business trend analysis; modeling and scenarios; potential interest rate impacts; evaluating and potentially escaping leveraged finance covenants; how to assess equity (and why it matters); investing on news and events; early stage credit; and creating accurate credit snapshots. This book is an indispensable resource for all investment and underwriting professionals, money managers, consultants, accountants, advisors, and lawyers working in leveraged finance. In fact, it teaches credit analysis skills that will be valuable in analyzing a wide variety of higher-risk investments, including growth stocks.

Venture Deals

Author : Brad Feld
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1118118642
Total Pages : 245 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (181 download)

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Book Synopsis Venture Deals by : Brad Feld

Download or read book Venture Deals written by Brad Feld and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2011-07-05 with total page 245 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An engaging guide to excelling in today's venture capital arena Beginning in 2005, Brad Feld and Jason Mendelson, managing directors at Foundry Group, wrote a long series of blog posts describing all the parts of a typical venture capital Term Sheet: a document which outlines key financial and other terms of a proposed investment. Since this time, they've seen the series used as the basis for a number of college courses, and have been thanked by thousands of people who have used the information to gain a better understanding of the venture capital field. Drawn from the past work Feld and Mendelson have written about in their blog and augmented with newer material, Venture Capital Financings puts this discipline in perspective and lays out the strategies that allow entrepreneurs to excel in their start-up companies. Page by page, this book discusses all facets of the venture capital fundraising process. Along the way, Feld and Mendelson touch on everything from how valuations are set to what externalities venture capitalists face that factor into entrepreneurs' businesses. Includes a breakdown analysis of the mechanics of a Term Sheet and the tactics needed to negotiate Details the different stages of the venture capital process, from starting a venture and seeing it through to the later stages Explores the entire venture capital ecosystem including those who invest in venture capitalist Contain standard documents that are used in these transactions Written by two highly regarded experts in the world of venture capital The venture capital arena is a complex and competitive place, but with this book as your guide, you'll discover what it takes to make your way through it.

Handbook of Hedge Funds

Author : François-Serge Lhabitant
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119995248
Total Pages : 654 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (199 download)

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Book Synopsis Handbook of Hedge Funds by : François-Serge Lhabitant

Download or read book Handbook of Hedge Funds written by François-Serge Lhabitant and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2011-03-23 with total page 654 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A comprehensive guide to the burgeoning hedge fund industry Intended as a comprehensive reference for investors and fund and portfolio managers, Handbook of Hedge Funds combines new material with updated information from Francois-Serge L’habitant’s two other successful hedge fund books. This book features up-to-date regulatory and historical information, new case studies and trade examples, detailed analyses of investment strategies, discussions of hedge fund indices and databases, and tips on portfolio construction. Francois-Serge L’habitant (Geneva, Switzerland) is the Head of Investment Research at Kedge Capital. He is Professor of Finance at the University of Lausanne and at EDHEC Business School, as well as the author of five books, including Hedge Funds: Quantitative Insights (0-470-85667-X) and Hedge Funds: Myths & Limits (0-470-84477-9), both from Wiley.

Investing in Credit Hedge Funds: An In-Depth Guide to Building Your Portfolio and Profiting from the Credit Market

Author : Putri Pascualy
Publisher : McGraw Hill Professional
ISBN 13 : 007182832X
Total Pages : 337 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (718 download)

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Book Synopsis Investing in Credit Hedge Funds: An In-Depth Guide to Building Your Portfolio and Profiting from the Credit Market by : Putri Pascualy

Download or read book Investing in Credit Hedge Funds: An In-Depth Guide to Building Your Portfolio and Profiting from the Credit Market written by Putri Pascualy and published by McGraw Hill Professional. This book was released on 2013-11-29 with total page 337 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: THE DEFINITIVE GUIDE TO CREATING A POWERFUL STRATEGY FOR INVESTMENTS IN CREDIT HEDGE FUNDS Following the credit crisis that rocked the global markets, many investors were left with a great sense of unease. However, when faced with historically low interest rates in a world awash with liquidity, they flocked back into the credit market. But this wave of liquidity will soon come to an end. Investors are grappling with their need for return generation while trying to navigate an increasingly volatile credit market. Given its inherent flexibility, the hedge fund structure is ideal for investing in the credit market. In Investing in Credit Hedge Funds, PAAMCO credit strategist Putri Pascualy shows how to profit from a variety of credit-focused investments, including: HIGH-YIELD BONDS - Capitalize on the inefficiencies in the market for levered companies STRESSED / DISTRESSED MARKETS - Develop mastery of the bankruptcy and reorganization processes to spot your best opportunities BANK LOANS - Take advantage of loans' structural seniority and collateral while navigating credit, liquidity, and operational risk CONVERTIBLE BONDS - Apply trading acumen to invest in hybrid instruments that combine the best features of bonds and equities SOVEREIGN DEBT - Understand the difference between the corporate and sovereign bond market and manage the macroeconomic risks in a credit portfolio Investing in Credit Hedge Funds provides in-depth research on the most commonly used structuring vehicles, the legal rights and responsibilities of all parties, and the pros and cons of separately managed accounts. It provides practical, expert advice on conducting operational due diligence and best practices in mitigating counterparty risks to avoid the fates of those who suffered losses as Bear Stearns, Lehman Brothers, and MF Global went down. And it reveals practical risk-management techniques unique to credit investing. Investing in Credit Hedge Funds provides a fully rounded education in creating a powerful credit portfolio that will instantly put you ahead of the investing pack. PRAISE FOR INVESTING IN CREDIT HEDGE FUNDS "Read this book if you want to understand how a leading hedge fund-of-fund investor evaluates distressed credit opportunities in the aftermath of the financial crisis." --Bruce Brittain, Executive Vice President, Product Management Group, PIMCO "Arms the institutional investor with the tools to conduct a more robust evaluation of a credit hedge fund's strategy, structure, and operational credibility. It is a practical resource for the diversified institutional investor." -- Susan Ridlen, Assistant Treasurer, Eli Lilly and Company "Provides insight for investors to become more equipped to deal with the ever-evolving credit markets in the future." -- Lorraine Spurge, CEO of Maplestone Capital Advisors, LLC

Investment Banking

Author : Giuliano Iannotta
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 354093765X
Total Pages : 199 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (49 download)

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Book Synopsis Investment Banking by : Giuliano Iannotta

Download or read book Investment Banking written by Giuliano Iannotta and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2010-01-12 with total page 199 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From a historical point of view, the main activity of investment banks is what today we call security underwriting. Investment banks buy securities, such as bonds and stocks, from an issuer and then sell them to the ?nal investors. In the eighteenth century, the main securities were bonds issued by governments. The way these bonds were priced and placed is extraordinarily similar to the system that inve- ment banks still use nowadays. When a government wanted to issue new bonds, it negotiated with a few prominent “middlemen” (today we would call them investment bankers). The middlemen agreed to take a fraction of the bonds: they accepted to do so only after having canvassed a list of people they could rely upon. The people on the list were the ?nal investors. The middlemen negotiated with the government even after the issuance. Indeed, in those days governments often changed unilaterally the bond conditions and being on the list of an important middleman could make the difference. On the other hand, middlemen with larger lists were considered to be in a better bargaining position. This game was repeated over time, and hence, reputation mattered. For the middlemen, being trusted by both the investors on the list and by the issuing governments was crucial.