Byzantium Unbound

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Author :
Publisher : Past Imperfect
ISBN 13 : 9781641891998
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (919 download)

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Book Synopsis Byzantium Unbound by : Anthony Kaldellis

Download or read book Byzantium Unbound written by Anthony Kaldellis and published by Past Imperfect. This book was released on 2019 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book takes a provocative long view of Byzantium, one that begins in the early Roman empire and extends all the way to the modern period, to argue that Byzantium was the most stable and enduring form of Greco-Roman society.

Romanland

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Author :
Publisher : Harvard University Press
ISBN 13 : 0674239695
Total Pages : 393 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (742 download)

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Book Synopsis Romanland by : Anthony Kaldellis

Download or read book Romanland written by Anthony Kaldellis and published by Harvard University Press. This book was released on 2019-04-01 with total page 393 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A leading historian argues that in the empire we know as Byzantium, the Greek-speaking population was actually Roman, and scholars have deliberately mislabeled their ethnicity for the past two centuries for political reasons. Was there ever such a thing as Byzantium? Certainly no emperor ever called himself “Byzantine.” And while the identities of minorities in the eastern empire are clear—contemporaries speak of Slavs, Bulgarians, Armenians, Jews, and Muslims—that of the ruling majority remains obscured behind a name made up by later generations. Historical evidence tells us unequivocally that Byzantium’s ethnic majority, no less than the ruler of Constantinople, would have identified as Roman. It was an identity so strong in the eastern empire that even the conquering Ottomans would eventually adopt it. But Western scholarship has a long tradition of denying the Romanness of Byzantium. In Romanland, Anthony Kaldellis investigates why and argues that it is time for the Romanness of these so-called Byzantines to be taken seriously. In the Middle Ages, he explains, people of the eastern empire were labeled “Greeks,” and by the nineteenth century they were shorn of their distorted Greekness and became “Byzantine.” Only when we understand that the Greek-speaking population of Byzantium was actually Roman will we fully appreciate the nature of Roman ethnic identity. We will also better understand the processes of assimilation that led to the absorption of foreign and minority groups into the dominant ethnic group, the Romans who presided over the vast multiethnic empire of the east.

Global Byzantium

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Author :
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 100062448X
Total Pages : 536 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (6 download)

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Book Synopsis Global Byzantium by : Leslie Brubaker

Download or read book Global Byzantium written by Leslie Brubaker and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2022-07-29 with total page 536 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Global Byzantium is, in part, a recasting and expansion of the old ‘Byzantium and its neighbours’ theme with, however, a methodological twist away from the resolutely political and toward the cultural and economic. A second thing that Global Byzantium – as a concept – explicitly endorses is comparative methodology. Global Byzantium needs also to address three further issues: cultural capital, the importance of the local, and the empire’s strategic geographical location. Cultural capital: in past decades it was fashionable to define Byzantium as culturally superior to western Christian Europe, and Byzantine influence was a key concept, especially in art historical circles. This concept has been increasingly criticised, and what we now see emerging is a comparative methodology that relies on the concept of ‘competitive sharing’, not blind copying but rather competitive appropriation. The importance of the local is equally critical. We need to talk more about what the Byzantines saw when they ‘looked out’, and what others saw in Byzantium when they ‘looked in’ and to think about how that impacted on our, very post-modern, concepts of globalism. Finally, we need to think about the empire’s strategic geographical position: between the fourth and the thirteenth centuries, if anyone was travelling internationally, they had to travel across (or along the coasts of) the Byzantine Empire. Byzantium was thus a crucial intermediary, for good or for ill, between Europe, Africa, and Asia – effectively, the glue that held the Christian world together, and it was also a critical transit point between the various Islamic polities and the Christian world.

Hellenism in Byzantium

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Author :
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 9780521876889
Total Pages : 482 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (768 download)

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Book Synopsis Hellenism in Byzantium by : Anthony Kaldellis

Download or read book Hellenism in Byzantium written by Anthony Kaldellis and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2008-01-31 with total page 482 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This text was the first systematic study of what it meant to be 'Greek' in late antiquity and Byzantium, an identity that could alternatively become national, religious, philosophical, or cultural. Through close readings of the sources, Professor Kaldellis surveys the space that Hellenism occupied in each period; the broader debates in which it was caught up; and the historical causes of its successive transformations. The first section (100-400) shows how Romanisation and Christianisation led to the abandonment of Hellenism as a national label and its restriction to a negative religious sense and a positive, albeit rarefied, cultural one. The second (1000-1300) shows how Hellenism was revived in Byzantium and contributed to the evolution of its culture. The discussion looks closely at the reception of the classical tradition, which was the reason why Hellenism was always desirable and dangerous in Christian society, and presents a new model for understanding Byzantine civilisation.

Byzantium

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Author :
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 140083273X
Total Pages : 441 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (8 download)

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Book Synopsis Byzantium by : Judith Herrin

Download or read book Byzantium written by Judith Herrin and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2009-09-08 with total page 441 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A captivating account of the legendary empire that made Western civilization possible Byzantium. The name evokes grandeur and exoticism—gold, cunning, and complexity. In this unique book, Judith Herrin unveils the riches of a quite different civilization. Avoiding a standard chronological account of the Byzantine Empire's millennium—long history, she identifies the fundamental questions about Byzantium—what it was, and what special significance it holds for us today. Bringing the latest scholarship to a general audience in accessible prose, Herrin focuses each short chapter around a representative theme, event, monument, or historical figure, and examines it within the full sweep of Byzantine history—from the foundation of Constantinople, the magnificent capital city built by Constantine the Great, to its capture by the Ottoman Turks. She argues that Byzantium's crucial role as the eastern defender of Christendom against Muslim expansion during the early Middle Ages made Europe—and the modern Western world—possible. Herrin captivates us with her discussions of all facets of Byzantine culture and society. She walks us through the complex ceremonies of the imperial court. She describes the transcendent beauty and power of the church of Hagia Sophia, as well as chariot races, monastic spirituality, diplomacy, and literature. She reveals the fascinating worlds of military usurpers and ascetics, eunuchs and courtesans, and artisans who fashioned the silks, icons, ivories, and mosaics so readily associated with Byzantine art. An innovative history written by one of our foremost scholars, Byzantium reveals this great civilization's rise to military and cultural supremacy, its spectacular destruction by the Fourth Crusade, and its revival and final conquest in 1453.

Landscape, Nature, and the Sacred in Byzantium

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Author :
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1107139090
Total Pages : 313 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (71 download)

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Book Synopsis Landscape, Nature, and the Sacred in Byzantium by : Veronica della Dora

Download or read book Landscape, Nature, and the Sacred in Byzantium written by Veronica della Dora and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2016-02-04 with total page 313 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Explores Byzantine perceptions of creation and different types of natural environments, and the principles underpinning such perceptions.

The Bear of Byzantium

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Author :
Publisher : Canelo
ISBN 13 : 1800321295
Total Pages : 446 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (3 download)

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Book Synopsis The Bear of Byzantium by : S.J.A. Turney

Download or read book The Bear of Byzantium written by S.J.A. Turney and published by Canelo. This book was released on 2022-02-10 with total page 446 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The wolves of Odin sail to the centre of the world: Constantinople. AD 1041. After successfully avenging the death of his father, Halfdan and the crew of the Sea Wolf seek adventure in strange new lands, far from their Scandinavian home. They join the fleet of Harald Hardrada, the legendary Viking commander, sailing back to Constantinople from the battlefields of Georgia. There they join the Varangians, the personal bodyguard of the Byzantine Emperors populated almost exclusively by Viking warriors. But Constantinople has changed during Hardrada’s long absence. The Emperor, Michael IV, is ailing visibly, and powerful factions in his court are setting their plans in motion ahead of his inevitable demise. While courtiers scheme, elements even within the Varangian Guard are picking sides. Gunnhild, the seer among the Sea Wolf crew, has struck out on her own in the big city. Unable to join the all-male Guard alongside her friends, she establishes herself in a small side-street near the port as a healer and soothsayer, offering cures to the sick and glimpses of the future to the desperate, or the conspiratorial. But in all her visions she sees a wolf, a boar and a golden bear fighting together to support the Byzantine throne. The Norns aren’t finished with them yet... The epic second instalment in the Wolves of Odin series, taking us to the heart of power in Constantinople and the desperate machinations of the Byzantine emperors. Perfect for fans of Bernard Cornwell, Giles Kristian and Angus Donald.

The Unbound God

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Author :
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1315513048
Total Pages : 191 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (155 download)

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Book Synopsis The Unbound God by : Chris L. de Wet

Download or read book The Unbound God written by Chris L. de Wet and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2017-07-14 with total page 191 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume examines the prevalence, function, and socio-political effects of slavery discourse in the major theological formulations of the late third to early fifth centuries AD, arguably the most formative period of early Christian doctrine. The question the book poses is this: in what way did the Christian theologians of the third, fourth, and early fifth centuries appropriate the discourse of slavery in their theological formulations, and what could the effect of this appropriation have been for actual physical slaves? This fascinating study is crucial reading for anyone with an interest in early Christianity or Late Antiquity, and slavery more generally.

Orthodox Mercantilism

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Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1040009654
Total Pages : 311 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (4 download)

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Book Synopsis Orthodox Mercantilism by : Alex Feldman

Download or read book Orthodox Mercantilism written by Alex Feldman and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2024-04-02 with total page 311 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book demonstrates how the political economy of mercantilism was not simply a Western invention by various cities and kingdoms during the Renaissance, but was the natural by-product of perpetually limited growth rates and rulers’ relentless pursuits of bullion. It contributes to discussions of the economic history surrounding the so-called “Great Divergence” between East and West, which would consequently lend context and credence to differences of economic thought in the world today. Additionally, it seeks to explain present economic thought as tacitly derived from implicit antique paradigms. This book advances fields of research from numismatics and sigillography to historical materialism and historical political economy. Divided into three parts, Orthodox Mercantilism first examines the political theology (the sovereignty) of the œcumene from the early 11th century. Second, it analyzes its peripheral legislation from the customary laws of newly Christianized dynasties up to the Kormčaja Kniga’s adoption (the Nomokanon) by 13th-century Orthodox dynasties across Eastern Europe. Third, it explores how these dynasties (and their own satellite dynasties) hoarded finite bullion to pay for defense, resulting in the 11–14th-century coinless period across Eastern Europe and Western Eurasia. Appealing to students and scholars alike, this book will be of interest to those studying and researching economic and mercantile history, particularly in the context of Byzantine and Eastern European societies.

Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood

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Author :
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190253231
Total Pages : 441 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (92 download)

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Book Synopsis Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood by : Anthony Kaldellis

Download or read book Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood written by Anthony Kaldellis and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2017-06-07 with total page 441 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the second half of the tenth century, Byzantium embarked on a series of spectacular conquests: first in the southeast against the Arabs, then in Bulgaria, and finally in the Georgian and Armenian lands. By the early eleventh century, the empire was the most powerful state in the Mediterranean. It was also expanding economically, demographically, and, in time, intellectually as well. Yet this imperial project came to a crashing collapse fifty years later, when political disunity, fiscal mismanagement, and defeat at the hands of the Seljuks in the east and the Normans in the west brought an end to Byzantine hegemony. By 1081, not only was its dominance of southern Italy, the Balkans, Caucasus, and northern Mesopotamia over but Byzantium's very existence was threatened. How did this dramatic transformation happen? Based on a close examination of the relevant sources, this history-the first of its kind in over a century-offers a new reconstruction of the key events and crucial reigns as well as a different model for understanding imperial politics and wars, both civil and foreign. In addition to providing a badly needed narrative of this critical period of Byzantine history, Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood offers new interpretations of key topics relevant to the medieval era. The narrative unfolds in three parts: the first covers the years 955-1025, a period of imperial conquest and consolidation of authority under the great emperor Basil "the Bulgar-Slayer." The second (1025-1059) examines the dispersal of centralized authority in Constantinople as well as the emergence of new foreign enemies (Pechenegs, Seljuks, and Normans). The last section chronicles the spectacular collapse of the empire during the second half of the eleventh century, concluding with a look at the First Crusade and its consequences for Byzantine relations with the powers of Western Europe. This briskly paced and thoroughly investigated narrative vividly brings to life one of the most exciting and transformative eras of medieval history.

A Short History of the Byzantine Empire

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Author :
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1350233439
Total Pages : 257 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (52 download)

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Book Synopsis A Short History of the Byzantine Empire by : Dionysios Stathakopoulos

Download or read book A Short History of the Byzantine Empire written by Dionysios Stathakopoulos and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2023-06-15 with total page 257 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Incorporating the latest scholarly developments to offer an in-depth account of the history of the Byzantine Empire, this revised edition sheds new light on the Empire's culture, theology, and economic and socio-political spheres. Charting from the Empire's origins, to its expansion and influence over the Mediterranean, later revival, and eventual fall – this book covers more than 1,000 years of history. With analysis of the Empire's changing social infrastructure, key events, and the broader cultural environment, Stathakopoulos expertly analyses how and why it became a powerhouse of literature, art, theology and learning, whilst also examining its aftermath and afterlife – and enduring significance today. Drawing on a variety of English and non-English sources, in addition to a plethora of visual and textual materials, this book is an invaluable resource for scholars, students, and general readers alike.

The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Literature

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Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0197567118
Total Pages : 785 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (975 download)

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Book Synopsis The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Literature by : Stratis Papaioannou

Download or read book The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Literature written by Stratis Papaioannou and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2021-07-05 with total page 785 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume, the first ever of its kind in English, introduces and surveys Greek literature in Byzantium (330 - 1453 CE). In twenty-five chapters composed by leading specialists, The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Literature surveys the immense body of Greek literature produced from the fourth to the fifteenth century CE and advances a nuanced understanding of what "literature" was in Byzantium. This volume is structured in four sections. The first, "Materials, Norms, Codes," presents basic structures for understanding the history of Byzantine literature like language, manuscript book culture, theories of literature, and systems of textual memory. The second, "Forms," deals with the how Byzantine literature works: oral discourse and "text"; storytelling; rhetoric; re-writing; verse; and song. The third section ("Agents") focuses on the creators of Byzantine literature, both its producers and its recipients. The final section, entitled "Translation, Transmission, Edition," surveys the three main ways by which we access Byzantine Greek literature today: translations into other Byzantine languages during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages; Byzantine and post-Byzantine manuscripts; and modern printed editions. The volume concludes with an essay that offers a view of the recent past--as well as the likely future--of Byzantine literary studies.

Michael Palaiologos and the Publics of the Byzantine Empire in Exile, c.1223–1259

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Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3031092783
Total Pages : 267 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (31 download)

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Book Synopsis Michael Palaiologos and the Publics of the Byzantine Empire in Exile, c.1223–1259 by : Aleksandar Jovanović

Download or read book Michael Palaiologos and the Publics of the Byzantine Empire in Exile, c.1223–1259 written by Aleksandar Jovanović and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2022-09-28 with total page 267 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book follows the public life of Michael Palaiologos from his early days and upbringing, through to his assumption of the Byzantine imperial throne in 1258. It explores multiple narratives, highlighting the various public communities in the Byzantine polity, primarily focusing on intellectuals and clerks rather than the emperor himself. Drawing on insights from power relations, studies of class and the public sphere, this book provides an account of thirteenth-century Byzantium that highlights the role of communicative and symbolic actions in the public sphere, and argues they were integral to Palaiologos' political success.

Plowing the Dark

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Author :
Publisher : Macmillan + ORM
ISBN 13 : 146680369X
Total Pages : 528 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (668 download)

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Book Synopsis Plowing the Dark by : Richard Powers

Download or read book Plowing the Dark written by Richard Powers and published by Macmillan + ORM. This book was released on 2001-08-01 with total page 528 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Pulitzer Prize–winning author Richard Powers's Plowing the Dark recasts the rules of the novel and remains one his most daring works—a mesmerizing fiction explores the imagination's power to both destroy and save. In a digital laboratory on the shores of Puget Sound, a band of virtual-reality researchers races to complete the Cavern, an empty white room that can become a jungle, a painting, or a vast Byzantine cathedral. In a war-torn Mediterranean city, an American is held hostage, chained to a radiator in another empty white room. What can possibly join these two remote places? Only the shared imagination, a room that these people unwittingly build in common, where they are all about to meet. Adie Klarpol, a skilled but disillusioned artist, comes back to life, revived by the thrill of working with cutting-edge technology. Against the collapse of Cold War empires and the fall of the Berlin Wall, she retreats dangerously into the cyber-realities she has been hired to create. On the other side of the globe, Taimur Martin, an English teacher recovering from a failed love affair, is picked up off the streets in Beirut by Islamic fundamentalists and held in solitary captivity. "Mention Richard Powers' name to other writers and see them get that faraway look in their eyes: They are calculating the eventual reach of his influence." —Sven Birkerts, Esquire

Blood Feud

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Author :
Publisher : Canelo
ISBN 13 : 1800321279
Total Pages : 412 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (3 download)

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Book Synopsis Blood Feud by : S.J.A. Turney

Download or read book Blood Feud written by S.J.A. Turney and published by Canelo. This book was released on 2021-07-22 with total page 412 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The wolves of Odin have been unleashed: the hunt has begun. Anno Domini 1040. Christianity has swept unstoppably across Scandinavia, leaving few enclaves of the old ways clinging on to their fading world as King Olof of Sweden works to convert his people. A young warrior, Halfdan, has witnessed the ‘mercy’ of the Christian lords, watched his people attacked, his village burned and the Odin stone toppled as heretical. Watched his father cut down by an ambitious Christian jarl and his zealous priest. Among the ashes of his world he vowed an oath of vengeance before all the gods. That oath will bring together an unlikely band of allies and carry them to the very edge of the world, fighting giants, dragons and wraiths, in pursuit of his father’s killer: Yngvar. The jarl is powerful, and the weaving of Fate difficult, but the blood price must be paid. A compelling and explosive novel of revenge, this is a major new series from S.J.A. Turney. Perfect for fans of Bernard Cornwell, Giles Kristian and Angus Donald. Praise for Blood Feud 'Si Turney is a natural born storyteller, gifted, brilliant and utterly enthralling. Blood Feud tells the story of a young Norse warrior, Halfdan, who swears to avenge the murder of his father. The reader is almost immediately immersed into the action, swept away into the dragon-ship beside Halfdan and his tough, salty and occasionally hilarious crew of Vikings... An intelligent, fast-paced but finely crafted novel of battle, comradeship and bloody revenge – with some surprising twists along the way. Highly recommended to all those who enjoy a superior Viking adventure yarn!' Angus Donald, author of The Last Berserker 'SJA Turney's new Viking epic is a bone-crunching good time! A resourceful young warrior on a quest for vengeance takes to the sea with a dragon long-ship and a motley band of new friends, fighting old enemies, foreign wars and the mysterious workings of fate at every new turn of the tide. Blood Feud is sure to thrill those mourning the end of Bernard Cornwell's Saxon Stories' Kate Quinn, author of The Rose Code 'A rich combination of saga and quest, religion and violence, with a satisfying conclusion that paves the way for further adventures' Ruth Downie, author of the Medicus series

The West

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Author :
Publisher : Penguin
ISBN 13 : 0593472179
Total Pages : 449 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (934 download)

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Book Synopsis The West by : Naoíse Mac Sweeney

Download or read book The West written by Naoíse Mac Sweeney and published by Penguin. This book was released on 2023-05-23 with total page 449 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: “A bold, sweeping bird’s eye view of thousands of years of history that provides a truly global perspective of the past. A fantastic achievement.”—Peter Frankopan, internationally bestselling author of The Silk Roads Prize-winning historian Naoíse Mac Sweeney delivers a captivating exploration of how “Western Civilization”—the concept of a single cultural inheritance extending from ancient Greece to modern times—is a powerful figment of our collective imagination. An urgently needed emergent voice in big history, she offers a bold new account of Western history, real and imagined, through the lives of fourteen remarkable individuals. In this groundbreaking, story-driven retelling of Western history, Naoíse Mac Sweeney debunks the myths and origin stories that underpin the history we thought we knew. Told through fourteen figures who each played a role in the creation of the Western idea—from Herodotus, a mixed-race migrant, to Phylis Wheatley, an enslaved African American who became a literary sensation; and from Gladstone, with a private passion for epic poetry, to the medieval Arab scholar Al-Kindi—the subjects are a mind-expanding blend of unsung heroes and familiar faces viewed afresh. These characters span the millennia and the continents, representing different religions, varying levels of wealth and education, diverse traditions and nationalities. Each life tells us something unexpected about the age in which it was lived and offers us a piece of the puzzle of how the modern idea of the West developed—and why we've misunderstood it for too long. The concept of “the West” is present in every daily interaction you have, from entertainment and politics to world markets and world history. This engagingly intimate history will reshape the way you see the world around you. At this moment of civilizational redefinition, if we are to chart a future for the West, we must properly understand its past.

Byzantium

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Author :
Publisher : Oldacastle Books
ISBN 13 : 1842436910
Total Pages : 123 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (424 download)

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Book Synopsis Byzantium by : Giles Morgan

Download or read book Byzantium written by Giles Morgan and published by Oldacastle Books. This book was released on 2007-05-17 with total page 123 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: So what's so significant about the Byzantine Empire? It is now recognized as having had a considerable influence on the Renaissance and a significant impact in the shaping modern Europe. Modern historians are increasingly acknowledging the role the Byzantine Empire played in the development of both Islam and Christianity, and the relationship between the two. The term 'Byzantine' derives from the ancient Greek city of Byzantium founded in 667 BC by colonists from Megara. It was named in honor of their leader Byzas. It later became better known as Constantinople, that gateway between West and East and played a crucial role in the transmission of Christianity to the West. Constantine is now generally known as the first Christian Emperor, and in recent years interest in him has grown, with his role in the development of Christianity being questioned by Dan Brown, author of The Da Vinci Code, amongst others. A closer examination of this formative period in the history of the church reveals a struggle to gain a coherent and cohesive religious identity. Christianity would emerge as the major religion of the Byzantine Empire in a departure from the pagan worship of the Roman Empire. The Byzantine Empire was often at the centre of profound geopolitical, cultural, and religious forces that threatened to pull it apart. When Byzantine forces suffered a terrible defeat at the hands of the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert for example, appeals to the West precipitated the First Crusade. In 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, Constantinople was conquered by the Crusader army. The dramatic siege and subsequent fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire is often seen as marking the end of the medieval period. The Byzantine Empire lasted for over a thousand years, created remarkable art and architecture and created a lasting cultural and religious legacy—even its decline and fall was to have ramifications that reached far beyond its borders. The fall of Constantinople which had been a key city on the ancient Silk Road, linking East and West led many to consider the prospect of opening up new lines of trade, sea exploration that would eventually lead to major new discoveries, new routes and new worlds.