Thoreau's Living Ethics

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Publisher : University of Georgia Press
ISBN 13 : 0820336661
Total Pages : 288 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Thoreau's Living Ethics by : Philip Cafaro

Download or read book Thoreau's Living Ethics written by Philip Cafaro and published by University of Georgia Press. This book was released on 2010-01-25 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Thoreau's Living Ethics is the first full, rigorous account of Henry Thoreau's ethical philosophy. Focused on Walden but ranging widely across his writings, the study situates Thoreau within a long tradition of ethical thinking in the West, from the ancients to the Romantics and on to the present day. Philip Cafaro shows Thoreau grappling with important ethical questions that agitated his own society and discusses his value for those seeking to understand contemporary ethical issues. Cafaro's particular interest is in Thoreau's treatment of virtue ethics: the branch of ethics centered on personal and social flourishing. Ranging across the central elements of Thoreau's philosophy—life, virtue, economy, solitude and society, nature, and politics—Cafaro shows Thoreau developing a comprehensive virtue ethics, less based in ancient philosophy than many recent efforts and more grounded in modern life and experience. He presents Thoreau's evolutionary, experimental ethics as superior to the more static foundational efforts of current virtue ethicists. Another main focus is Thoreau's environmental ethics. The book shows Thoreau not only anticipating recent arguments for wild nature's intrinsic value, but also demonstrating how a personal connection to nature furthers self-development, moral character, knowledge, and creativity. Thoreau's life and writings, argues Cafaro, present a positive, life-affirming environmental ethics, combining respect and restraint with an appreciation for human possibilities for flourishing within nature.

Thoreau's Religion

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Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1108835104
Total Pages : 333 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (88 download)

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Book Synopsis Thoreau's Religion by : Alda Balthrop-Lewis

Download or read book Thoreau's Religion written by Alda Balthrop-Lewis and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2021-01-21 with total page 333 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Boldly reconfigures Walden for contemporary ethics and politics by recovering Thoreau's theological vision of environmental justice.

Thoreau's Nature

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Publisher : Rowman & Littlefield
ISBN 13 : 9780742521414
Total Pages : 180 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (214 download)

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Book Synopsis Thoreau's Nature by : Jane Bennett

Download or read book Thoreau's Nature written by Jane Bennett and published by Rowman & Littlefield. This book was released on 2002 with total page 180 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Thoreau's Nature: Ethics, Politics, and the Wild explores how Thoreau crafted a life open to 'the Wild,' a term that marks the startling element of foreignness in every object of experience, however familiar. Thoreau's encounters with nature, Bennett argues, allowed him to resist his all-too-human tendency toward intellectual laziness, social conformity, and political complacency. Bennett pursues this theme by constructing a series of dialogues between Thoreau and our contemporaries: Foucault on identity and power, Haraway on the nature/culture of division, Hollywood celebrities on the Walden Woods Project, the National Endowment for the Humanities on politics and art, and Kafka on the question of political idealism. The pertinence to the late 20th century of Thoreau's pursuit of independent judgment, ecological foresight, and moral nobility becomes apparent through these engagements.

The Philosophy of Henry Thoreau

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Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1350079022
Total Pages : 185 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (5 download)

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Book Synopsis The Philosophy of Henry Thoreau by : Lester H. Hunt

Download or read book The Philosophy of Henry Thoreau written by Lester H. Hunt and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2019-10-17 with total page 185 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Henry Thoreau is widely considered to be one of the greatest nature writers, among whose best-known works are Walden and Walking. In this book, Lester Hunt shows that his writings have a compelling philosophical dimension as well. Thoreau seldom argues for his ideas the way other philosophers do. Rather than setting up proofs designed to trap the reader into agreeing with him, he challenges the reader – by means of narratives, jokes, questions, and paradoxes -- to recognize possibilities previously unknown and unexplored. Thoreau's own explorations led him to several distinctively philosophical theories: an intuitionist metaethics, an ethics based on virtue and self-realization, a politics that is fundamentally individualist and anarchist, and a secular religion in which nature is pre-eminent.

Thoreauvian Modernities

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Publisher : University of Georgia Press
ISBN 13 : 082034429X
Total Pages : 328 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Thoreauvian Modernities by : François Specq

Download or read book Thoreauvian Modernities written by François Specq and published by University of Georgia Press. This book was released on 2013-02-01 with total page 328 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Does Thoreau belong to the past or to the future? Instead of canonizing him as a celebrant of “pure” nature apart from the corruption of civilization, the essays in Thoreauvian Modernities reveal edgier facets of his work—how Thoreau is able to unsettle as well as inspire and how he is able to focus on both the timeless and the timely. Contributors from the United States and Europe explore Thoreau's modernity and give a much-needed reassessment of his work in a global context. The first of three sections, “Thoreau and (Non)Modernity,” views Thoreau as a social thinker who set himself against the “modern” currents of his day even while contributing to the emergence of a new era. By questioning the place of humans in the social, economic, natural, and metaphysical order, he ushered in a rethinking of humanity's role in the natural world that nurtured the environmental movement. The second section, “Thoreau and Philosophy,” examines Thoreau's writings in light of the philosophy of his time as well as current philosophical debates. Section three, “Thoreau, Language, and the Wild,” centers on his relationship to wild nature in its philosophical, scientific, linguistic, and literary dimensions. Together, these sixteen essays reveal Thoreau's relevance to a number of fields, including science, philosophy, aesthetics, environmental ethics, political science, and animal studies. Thoreauvian Modernities posits that it is the germinating power of Thoreau's thought—the challenge it poses to our own thinking and its capacity to address pressing issues in a new way—that defines his enduring relevance and his modernity. Contributors: Kristen Case, Randall Conrad, David Dowling, Michel Granger, Michel Imbert, Michael Jonik, Christian Maul, Bruno Monfort, Henrik Otterberg, Tom Pughe, David M. Robinson, William Rossi, Dieter Schulz, François Specq, Joseph Urbas, Laura Dassow Walls.

Henry David Thoreau

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Publisher : University of Chicago Press
ISBN 13 : 022634469X
Total Pages : 668 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (263 download)

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Book Synopsis Henry David Thoreau by : Laura Dassow Walls

Download or read book Henry David Thoreau written by Laura Dassow Walls and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2017-07-07 with total page 668 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "[The author] traces the full arc of Thoreau’s life, from his early days in the intellectual hothouse of Concord, when the American experiment still felt fresh and precarious, and 'America was a family affair, earned by one generation and about to pass to the next.' By the time he died in 1862, at only forty-four years of age, Thoreau had witnessed the transformation of his world from a community of farmers and artisans into a bustling, interconnected commercial nation. What did that portend for the contemplative individual and abundant, wild nature that Thoreau celebrated? Drawing on Thoreau’s copious writings, published and unpublished, [the author] presents a Thoreau vigorously alive in all his quirks and contradictions: the young man shattered by the sudden death of his brother; the ambitious Harvard College student; the ecstatic visionary who closed Walden with an account of the regenerative power of the Cosmos. We meet the man whose belief in human freedom and the value of labor made him an uncompromising abolitionist; the solitary walker who found society in nature, but also found his own nature in the society of which he was a deeply interwoven part. And, running through it all, Thoreau the passionate naturalist, who, long before the age of environmentalism, saw tragedy for future generations in the human heedlessness around him."--

Environmental Virtue Ethics

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Publisher : Rowman & Littlefield
ISBN 13 : 9780742533905
Total Pages : 260 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (339 download)

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Book Synopsis Environmental Virtue Ethics by : Ronald D. Sandler

Download or read book Environmental Virtue Ethics written by Ronald D. Sandler and published by Rowman & Littlefield. This book was released on 2005 with total page 260 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: There is one certainty regarding the human relationship with nature-there is no getting away from it. But while a relationship with nature is a given, the nature of that relationship is not. Environmental ethics is the attempt to determine how we ought and ought not relate to the natural environment. A complete environmental ethic requires both an ethic of action and an ethic of character. Environmental virtue ethics is the area of environmental ethics concerned with character. It has been an underappreciated and underdeveloped aspect of environmental ethics-until now. The selections in this collection, consisting of ten original and four reprinted essays by leading scholars in the field, discuss the role that virtue and character have traditional played in environmental discourse, and reflect upon the role that it should play in the future. The selections also discuss the substantive content of the environmental virtues and vices, and apply them to concrete environmental issues and problems. This collection establishes the indispensability of environmental virtue ethics to environmental ethics. It also enhances the breadth and quality of the ongoing discussion of environmental virtue and vice and the role they should play in an adequate environmental ethic.

Passions for Nature

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Publisher : University of Georgia Press
ISBN 13 : 0820332895
Total Pages : 660 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Passions for Nature by : Rochelle Johnson

Download or read book Passions for Nature written by Rochelle Johnson and published by University of Georgia Press. This book was released on 2009 with total page 660 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Nineteenth-century Americans celebrated nature through many artistic forms, including natural-history writing, landscape painting, landscape design theory, and transcendental philosophy. Although we tend to associate these movements with the nation’s dawning environmental consciousness, Passions for Nature demonstrates that they instead alienated Americans from the physical environment even as they seemed to draw people to it. Rather than see these expressions of passion for nature as initiating environmental awareness, this study reveals how they contributed to a culture that remains startlingly ignorant of the details of the material world. Using as a touchstone the writings of nineteenth-century philanthropist Susan Fenimore Cooper (the daughter of famed author James Fenimore Cooper), Passions for Nature reveals that while a generalized passion for nature was intense and widespread in her era, cultural attention to the "real" physical world was quite limited. Popular artistic forms represented the natural world through specific metaphors for the American experience, cultivating a national tradition of valuing nature in terms of humanity. Johnson crosses disciplinary boundaries to demonstrate that anthropocentric understandings of the natural world result not only from the growing gulf between science and imagination that C. P. Snow located in the early twentieth century but also--and surprisingly--from cultural productions traditionally viewed as positive engagements with the environment. By uncovering the roots of a cultural alienation from nature, Passions for Nature explains how the United States came to be a nation that simultaneously reveres the natural world and yet remains dangerously distant from it.

Where I Lived, and What I Lived For

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Publisher : Penguin UK
ISBN 13 : 0141964294
Total Pages : 78 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (419 download)

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Book Synopsis Where I Lived, and What I Lived For by : Henry Thoreau

Download or read book Where I Lived, and What I Lived For written by Henry Thoreau and published by Penguin UK. This book was released on 2005-08-25 with total page 78 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Throughout history, some books have changed the world. They have transformed the way we see ourselves - and each other. They have inspired debate, dissent, war and revolution. They have enlightened, outraged, provoked and comforted. They have enriched lives - and destroyed them. Now Penguin brings you the works of the great thinkers, pioneers, radicals and visionaries whose ideas shook civilization and helped make us who we are. Thoreau's account of his solitary and self-sufficient home in the New England woods remains an inspiration to the environmental movement - a call to his fellow men to abandon their striving, materialistic existences of 'quiet desperation' for a simple life within their means, finding spiritual truth through awareness of the sheer beauty of their surroundings.

Walden by Haiku

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Publisher : University of Georgia Press
ISBN 13 : 0820340650
Total Pages : 270 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Walden by Haiku by : Ian Marshall

Download or read book Walden by Haiku written by Ian Marshall and published by University of Georgia Press. This book was released on 2012-01-01 with total page 270 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this intriguing literary experiment, Ian Marshall presents a collection of nearly three hundred haiku that he extracted from Henry David Thoreau’s Walden and documents the underlying similarities between Thoreau's prose and the art of haiku. Although Thoreau would never have encountered the Japanese haiku tradition, the way in which the most important ideas in Walden find expression in the most haikulike language suggests that Thoreau at Walden Pond and the haiku master Basho at his "old pond" might have drunk at the same well. Walden and the tradition of haiku share an aesthetic that embodies ideas in natural images, dissolves boundaries between self and world, emphasizes simplicity, and honors both solitude and humble, familiar objects. Marshall examines each of these aesthetic principles and offers a relevant collection of "found" haiku. In the second part of the book, he explains his process of finding the haiku in the text, breaking down each chapter of Walden to highlight the imagery and poetic language embedded in the most powerful passages. Marshall's exploration not only provides a fresh perspective on haiku, but also sheds new light on Thoreau's much-studied text and lays the foundation for a clearer understanding of the aesthetics of American nature writing.

Live Deep and Suck all the Marrow of Life: H.D. Thoreau's Literary Legacy

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Publisher : Vernon Press
ISBN 13 : 1648890075
Total Pages : 179 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (488 download)

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Book Synopsis Live Deep and Suck all the Marrow of Life: H.D. Thoreau's Literary Legacy by : María Laura Arce Álvarez

Download or read book Live Deep and Suck all the Marrow of Life: H.D. Thoreau's Literary Legacy written by María Laura Arce Álvarez and published by Vernon Press. This book was released on 2020-07-07 with total page 179 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Considered to be one of America’s great intellectuals, Thoreau was deeply engaged in some of the most important social debates of his day including slavery, the emergence of consumerism, the American Dream, living on the frontier, the role of the government and the ecological mind. As testimony to Thoreau’s remarkable intellectual heritage, his autobiography, essays and poetry still continue to inspire and attract readers from across the globe. As a celebration of H.D. Thoreau’s Bicentenary (1817-1862), this edited volume offers a re-reading of his works and reconsiders the influence that his transcendentalist philosophy has had on American culture and literature. Taking an intertextual perspective, the contributors to this volume seek to reveal Thoreau’s influence on American Literature and Arts from the 19th century onwards and his fundamental contribution to the development of 20th century American Literature. In particular, this work presents previously unconsidered intertextual analyses of authors that have been influenced by Thoreau’s writings. This volume also reveals how Thoreau’s influence can be read across literary genres and even seen in visual manifestations such as cinema.

Living Ethics

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Publisher : Cengage Learning
ISBN 13 : 9781111186517
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (865 download)

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Book Synopsis Living Ethics by : Michael J. Minch

Download or read book Living Ethics written by Michael J. Minch and published by Cengage Learning. This book was released on 2012 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Minch and Weigel's unique LIVING ETHICS casts a wide net, including traditional works of philosophy along with a diverse collection of voices from literature, science, popular music, and continental philosophy. Each chapter focuses on action, addressing an issue in the range of basic human activities like flourishing, believing, caring, consuming and nine other topics. The text approaches the study of ethics as a set of personal and provocative questions that have ethical significance for students' lives. This wide-ranging anthology, distinguished by its interdisciplinary selections, provides a comprehensive approach without separating theory from applied ethics. The book's breadth of readings integrates feminist and multicultural viewpoints for a broader range of perspectives and genres than any other text in this field. By highlighting contemporary issues and multiple disciplines, LIVING ETHICS will engage readers with little or no experience in philosophy.

The Rights of Nature

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Publisher : Univ of Wisconsin Press
ISBN 13 : 0299118436
Total Pages : 306 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (991 download)

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Book Synopsis The Rights of Nature by : Roderick Frazier Nash

Download or read book The Rights of Nature written by Roderick Frazier Nash and published by Univ of Wisconsin Press. This book was released on 1989-01-17 with total page 306 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Charting the history of contemporary philosophical and religious beliefs regarding nature, Roderick Nash focuses primarily on changing attitudes toward nature in the United States. His work is the first comprehensive history of the concept that nature has rights and that American liberalism has, in effect, been extended to the nonhuman world. “A splendid book. Roderick Nash has written another classic. This exploration of a new dimension in environmental ethics is both illuminating and overdue.”—Stewart Udall “His account makes history ‘come alive.’”—Sierra “So smoothly written that one almost does not notice the breadth of scholarship that went into this original and important work of environmental history.”—Philip Shabecoff, New York Times Book Review “Clarifying and challenging, this is an essential text for deep ecologists and ecophilosophers.”—Stephanie Mills, Utne Reader

Life's Philosophy

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Publisher : University of Georgia Press
ISBN 13 : 0820336394
Total Pages : 216 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Life's Philosophy by : Arne Naess

Download or read book Life's Philosophy written by Arne Naess and published by University of Georgia Press. This book was released on 2010-01-25 with total page 216 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Now available in English for the first time, Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess's meditation on the art of living is an exhortation to preserve the environment and biodiversity. As Naess approaches his ninetieth year, he offers a bright and bold perspective on the power of feelings to move us away from ecological and cultural degradation toward sound, future-focused policy and action. Naess acknowledges the powerlessness of the intellect without the heart, and, like Thoreau before him, he rejects the Cartesian notion of mind-body separation. He advocates instead for the integration of reason and emotion--a combination Naess believes will inspire us to make changes for the better. Playful and serious, this is a guidebook for finding our way on a planet wrecked by the harmful effects of consumption, population growth, commodification, technology, and globalization. It is sure to mobilize today's philosophers, environmentalists, policy makers, and the general public into seeking--with whole hearts rather than with superficial motives--more effective and timelier solutions. Naess's style is reflective and anecdotal as he shares stories and details from his rich and long life. With characteristic goodwill, wit, and wisdom, he denounces our unsustainable actions while simultaneously demonstrating the unsurpassed wonder, beauty, and possibility our world offers, and ultimately shows us that there is always reason for hope, that everyone is a potential ally in our fight for the future.

Thoreau the Land Surveyor

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9780813041476
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (414 download)

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Book Synopsis Thoreau the Land Surveyor by : Patrick Chura

Download or read book Thoreau the Land Surveyor written by Patrick Chura and published by . This book was released on 2010 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "An insightful study of how Thoreau's profession as a surveyor impacts his environmental sensibility and informs his literary works; further, Chura shows that the manuscript surveys and corresponding field notes are themselves worthy of literary analysis. "--Sandra Harbert Petrulionis, coeditor of More Day to Dawn: Thoreau's Walden for the Twenty-first Century "Chura's thorough understanding of the cultural import and physical practice of 19th-century surveying provides a fresh and interesting perspective on Thoreau's life and works. . . . .He combines a spry writing style with meticulous research in this delightful book, which introduces readers to another side of Thoreau's life and thought. Highly recommended." --G. D. MacDonald, Virginia State University "Most books about Henry David Thoreau focus on his writing, philosophy, or literary vision, paying little attention to how he made a living while engaged in such transcendentalist pursuits. In Thoreau the Land Surveyor, Patrick Chura corrects this oversight." --Lorianne DiSabato, The New England Quarterly "A scholarly book that's as beautiful as it is unput-downable. . . Not only is Chura a fine writer here, he is one heck of a historian. He enriches every page with carefully considered research. . . .I loved this book from start to finish." --Mike Tidwell, author of The Ponds of Kalambayi: An African Sojourn. "An insightful study of how Thoreau's profession as a surveyor impacts his environmental sensibility and informs his literary works; further, Chura shows that the manuscript surveys and corresponding field notes are themselves worthy of literary analysis. "This book on the significance of land surveying to Henry Thoreau's writing is one that we have long needed. Chura's practical experience as a surveyor combined with his literary scholarship makes him the perfect person to write it."--Richard J. Schneider, editor ofHenry David Thoreau: A Documentary Volume Henry David Thoreau, one of America's most prominent environmental writers, supported himself as a land surveyor for much of his life, parceling land that would be sold off to loggers. In the only study of its kind, Patrick Chura analyzes this seeming contradiction to show how the best surveyor in Concord combined civil engineering with civil disobedience. Placing Thoreau's surveying in historical context, Thoreau the Land Surveyor explains the cultural and ideological implications of surveying work in the mid-nineteenth century. Chura explains the ways that Thoreau's environmentalist disposition and philosophical convictions asserted themselves even as he reduced the land to measurable terms and acted as an agent for bringing it under proprietary control. He also describes in detail Thoreau's 1846 survey of Walden Pond. By identifying the origins of Walden in--of all places--surveying data, Chura re-creates a previously lost supporting manuscript of this American classic.

Walden Two

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Author :
Publisher : Hackett Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1603840362
Total Pages : 321 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (38 download)

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Book Synopsis Walden Two by : B. F. Skinner

Download or read book Walden Two written by B. F. Skinner and published by Hackett Publishing. This book was released on 2005-07-15 with total page 321 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A reprint of the 1976 Macmillan edition. This fictional outline of a modern utopia has been a center of controversy ever since its publication in 1948. Set in the United States, it pictures a society in which human problems are solved by a scientific technology of human conduct.

Walden

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 258 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (472 download)

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Book Synopsis Walden by : Henry David Thoreau

Download or read book Walden written by Henry David Thoreau and published by . This book was released on 2020-05-23 with total page 258 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In 1845 Henry David Thoreau left his pencil-manufacturing business and began building a cabin on the shore of Walden Pond near Concord, Massachusetts. This lyrical yet practical-minded book is at once a record of the 26 months Thoreau spent in withdrawal from society - an account of the daily minutiae of building, planting, hunting, cooking, and, always, observing nature - and a declaration of independence from the oppressive mores of the world he left behind. Elegant, witty, and quietly searching, Walden remains the most persuasive American argument for simplicity of life clarity of conscience.When I wrote the following pages, or rather the bulk of them, I lived alone, in the woods, a mile from any neighbor, in a house which I had built myself, on the shore of Walden Pond, in Concord, Massachusetts, and earned my living by the labor of my hands only. I lived there two years and two months. At present I am a sojourner in civilized life again.I should not obtrude my affairs so much on the notice of my readers if very particular inquiries had not been made by my townsmen concerning my mode of life, which some would call impertinent, though they do not appear to me at all impertinent, but, considering the circumstances, very natural and pertinent. Some have asked what I got to eat; if I did not feel lonesome; if I was not afraid; and the like. Others have been curious to learn what portion of my income I devoted to charitable purposes; and some, who have large families, how many poor children I maintained. I will therefore ask those of my readers who feel no particular interest in me to pardon me if I undertake to answer some of these questions in this book. In most books, the I, or first person, is omitted; in this it will be retained; that, in respect to egotism, is the main difference. We commonly do not remember that it is, after all, always the first person that is speaking. I should not talk so much about myself if there were anybody else whom I knew as well. Unfortunately, I am confined to this theme by the narrowness of my experience. Moreover, I, on my side, require of every writer, first or last, a simple and sincere account of his own life, and not merely what he has heard of other men's lives; some such account as he would send to his kindred from a distant land; for if he has lived sincerely, it must have been in a distant land to me. Perhaps these pages are more particularly addressed to poor students. As for the rest of my readers, they will accept such portions as apply to them. I trust that none will stretch the seams in putting on the coat, for it may do good service to him whom it fits. I would fain say something, not so much concerning the Chinese and Sandwich Islanders as you who read these pages, who are said to live in New England; something about your condition, especially your outward condition or circumstances in this world, in this town, what it is, whether it is necessary that it be as bad as it is, whether it cannot be improved as well as not. I have travelled a good deal in Concord; and everywhere, in shops, and offices, and fields, the inhabitants have appeared to me to be doing penance in a thousand remarkable ways. What I have heard of Bramins sitting exposed to four fires and looking in the face of the sun; or hanging suspended, with their heads downward, over flames; or looking at the heavens over their shoulders "until it becomes impossible for them to resume their natural position, while from the twist of the neck nothing but liquids can pass into the stomach"; or dwelling, chained for life, at the foot of a tree; or measuring with their bodies, like caterpillars, the breadth of vast empires; or standing on one leg on the tops of pillars-even these forms of conscious penance are hardly more incredible and astonishing than the scenes which I daily witness.