The Iranian Constitutional Revolution And The Clerical Leadership Of Khurasani

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The Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani

Author : Mateo Mohammad Farzaneh
Publisher : Syracuse University Press
ISBN 13 : 0815653115
Total Pages : 360 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (156 download)

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Book Synopsis The Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani by : Mateo Mohammad Farzaneh

Download or read book The Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani written by Mateo Mohammad Farzaneh and published by Syracuse University Press. This book was released on 2015-03-13 with total page 360 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Iranian Constitutional Revolution was the twentieth century’s first such political movement in the Middle East. It represented a landmark in Iranian history because of the unlikely support it received from Shi‘ite clerics who historically viewed Western concepts with suspicion, some claiming constitutionalism to be anti-Islamic. Leading the support was Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, the renowned Shi‘ite jurist who conceived of a supporting role for the clergy in a modern Iranian political system. Drawing on extensive analysis of religious texts, fatwas, and articles written by Khurasani an other pro- and anti-constitutionalists, Farzaneh provides a comprehensive and illuminating interpretation of Khurasani’s religious pragmatism. Despite some opposition from his peers, Khurasani used a form of jurisprudential reasoning when creating shari‘a that was based on human intellect to justify his support of not only the Iranian parliament but also the political powers of clerics. He had a reputation across the Shi‘ite community as a masterful religious scholar, a skillful teacher, and a committed humanitarian who heeded the people’s socioeconomic and political grievances and took action to address them. Khurasani’s push for progressive reforms helped to inaugurate a new era of clerical involvement in constitutionalism in the Middle East.

Iran's Constitutional Revolution of 1906 and Narratives of the Enlightenment

Author : Ali M. Ansari
Publisher : Gingko Library
ISBN 13 : 1909942944
Total Pages : 351 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (99 download)

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Book Synopsis Iran's Constitutional Revolution of 1906 and Narratives of the Enlightenment by : Ali M. Ansari

Download or read book Iran's Constitutional Revolution of 1906 and Narratives of the Enlightenment written by Ali M. Ansari and published by Gingko Library. This book was released on 2016-11-15 with total page 351 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Constitutional Revolution of 1906 opened the way for enormous change in Persia, heralding the modern era and creating a model for later political and cultural movements in the region. Broad in its scope, this multidisciplinary volume brings together essays from leading scholars in Iranian Studies to explore the significance of this revolution, its origins, and the people who made it happen. As the authors show, this period was one of unprecedented debate within Iran’s burgeoning press. Many different groups fought to shape the course of the Revolution, which opened up seemingly boundless possibilities for the country’s future and affected nearly every segment of its society. Exploring themes such as the role of women, the use of photography, and the uniqueness of the Revolution as an Iranian experience, the authors tell a story of immense transition, as the old order of the Shah subsided and was replaced by new institutions, new forms of expression, and a new social and political order.

The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911

Author : Janet Afary
Publisher : Columbia University Press
ISBN 13 : 9780231103503
Total Pages : 488 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (35 download)

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Book Synopsis The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911 by : Janet Afary

Download or read book The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911 written by Janet Afary and published by Columbia University Press. This book was released on 1996 with total page 488 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: During the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1906 to 1911 a variety of forces played key roles in overthrowing a repressive regime. Afary sheds new light on the role of ordinary citizens and peasantry, the status of Iranian women, and the multifaceted structure of Iranian society.

Zoroastrianism in India and Iran

Author : Alexandra Buhler
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 0755601637
Total Pages : 313 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (556 download)

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Book Synopsis Zoroastrianism in India and Iran by : Alexandra Buhler

Download or read book Zoroastrianism in India and Iran written by Alexandra Buhler and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2024-09-19 with total page 313 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the nineteenth century, a number of Zoroastrians emigrated from Iran to India. The subsequent importance of the cultural, religious and political ties between the Zoroastrian communities of Iran and the Zoroastrian communities of India has long been recognised. But despite this, there has been little scholarly attention paid to the changing dynamics of this transnational relationship. This book examines the Zoroastrian community in the late Qajar and early Pahlavi period beyond the borders of Iran to trace this Parsi-Persian relationship. A major theme is the increase in philanthropy directed to the Zoroastrians of Iran by the Parsis and the involvement of the British in encouraging Parsi feelings of patriotism towards Iran. The book shows that not only were Parsis affected by events taking place in Iran, they also contributed to the broader change in attitudes towards Zoroastrians in that country. Using a variety of original sources from Britain, India and Iran, Alexandra Buhler looks at the political, legal, and social position of Zoroastrians in Iran and how different events impacted their attitudes as well as the attitudes of Parsis towards their ancestral homeland. Of particular significance, this book shows, are the seminal years of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution (1906-11) and the rise in the glorification of the pre-Islamic past, which culminated in the state nationalism expounded by Reza Shah. These political moments had a profound impact on how Zoroastrians in India felt about their future in the country and reveal a complex web of relations between the Parsis, the Zoroastrians of Iran, and the British.

The Political History of Modern Iran

Author : Ali Rahnema
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 0755644018
Total Pages : 745 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (556 download)

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Book Synopsis The Political History of Modern Iran by : Ali Rahnema

Download or read book The Political History of Modern Iran written by Ali Rahnema and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2023-08-10 with total page 745 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From the rise of constitutionalism during the rule of despotic Qajars, foreign invasions, the Pahlavi regimes' destructive politics, economic, cultural and social modernization efforts and the oil nationalization movement, to the Iranian Revolution, its high hopes, broken promises, repression and intolerance causing national discontent and another socio-political upheaval today, the history of modern Iran has been eventful, unstable and turbulent. In this textbook, Ali Rahnema draws on his experience teaching and researching on modern Iran to render one hundred years of modern Iranian politics and history into easy-to-follow episodic chapters. Step by step, and taking a chronological approach, students are given the core information, analysis, and critical assessment to understand the flow of contemporary Iranian history. This is a comprehensive and exhaustive guide for undergraduate and graduate level courses on modern Iranian history and politics. The textbook is complete with the following pedagogical features: * An initial chapter on how to study Iranian history and how to approach historiography * Images of key individuals discussed in each chapter * Text boxes throughout to highlight key episodes, concepts, and ideas *Three types of exam questions; factual and analytical, seminar, and discussion at the end of each chapter * Glossaries at the end of each chapter *A comprehensive timeline Topics covered include: party formations; the flourishing of the press; the expansion or reduction of political and civil rights; repression and human right abuses; foreign intervention and influence; obsessions over conspiracies; the influence of Western ideologies, the role of nationalism, cultural and historical Persian chauvinism; and Shi'i Islam and competing Shiisms.

Revolution and its Discontents

Author : Eskandar Sadeghi-Boroujerdi
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1108630774
Total Pages : 457 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (86 download)

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Book Synopsis Revolution and its Discontents by : Eskandar Sadeghi-Boroujerdi

Download or read book Revolution and its Discontents written by Eskandar Sadeghi-Boroujerdi and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2019-02-21 with total page 457 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The death of the Islamic Republic's revolutionary patriarch, Ayatollah Khomeini, the bitter denouement of the Iran-Iraq War, and the marginalisation of leading factions within the political elite, in tandem with the end of the Cold War, harboured immense intellectual and political repercussions for the Iranian state and society. It was these events which created the conditions for the emergence of Iran's post-revolutionary reform movement, as its intellectuals and political leaders sought to re-evaluate the foundations of the Islamic state's political legitimacy and religious authority. In this monograph, Sadeghi-Boroujerdi, examines the rise and evolution of reformist political thought in Iran and analyses the complex network of publications, study circles, and think-tanks that encompassed a range of prominent politicians and intellectuals in the 1990s. In his meticulous account of the relationships between the post-revolutionary political class and intelligentsia, he explores a panoply of political and ideological issues still vital to understanding Iran's revolutionary state, such as the ruling political theology of the 'Guardianship of the Jurist', the political elite's engagement with questions of Islamic statehood, democracy and constitutionalism, and their critiques of revolutionary agency and social transformation.

Iran

Author : Abbas Amanat
Publisher : Yale University Press
ISBN 13 : 0300231466
Total Pages : 1028 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (2 download)

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Book Synopsis Iran by : Abbas Amanat

Download or read book Iran written by Abbas Amanat and published by Yale University Press. This book was released on 2017-10-24 with total page 1028 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A masterfully researched and compelling history of Iran from 1501 to 2009 This history of modern Iran is not a survey in the conventional sense but an ambitious exploration of the story of a nation. It offers a revealing look at how events, people, and institutions are shaped by currents that sometimes reach back hundreds of years. The book covers the complex history of the diverse societies and economies of Iran against the background of dynastic changes, revolutions, civil wars, foreign occupation, and the rise of the Islamic Republic. Abbas Amanat combines chronological and thematic approaches, exploring events with lasting implications for modern Iran and the world. Drawing on diverse historical scholarship and emphasizing the twentieth century, he addresses debates about Iran’s culture and politics. Political history is the driving narrative force, given impetus by Amanat's decades of research and study. He layers the book with discussions of literature, music, and the arts; ideology and religion; economy and society; and cultural identity and heritage.

Politics and Poetica of Rights in Modern Iran

Author : Behzad Zerehdaran
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1040004431
Total Pages : 216 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (4 download)

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Book Synopsis Politics and Poetica of Rights in Modern Iran by : Behzad Zerehdaran

Download or read book Politics and Poetica of Rights in Modern Iran written by Behzad Zerehdaran and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2024-03-29 with total page 216 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book delves into the history of subjective rights within the context of 19th-century Iran, specifically during the eventful Qajar era. The crux of its research lies in the emergence and evolution of the concept of subjective rights as opposed to the notion of objective rights. During this pivotal period, this transition marked a paradigm shift from “right as to be right” to “right as to have a right.” A central pillar of this book is the creation of a meta-theory, one that sheds light on the semantical evolution of the concept of rights. Within these pages, readers will find a concise history, tracing the conceptual path that led from the objective to the subjective realm of rights. In addition to these historical explorations, it delves into the intricate field of rights theory, investigating the foundations and justifications of rights. Employing the Hohfeldian framework, it analyses various conceptions of rights as they manifest within travel literature, enlightenment literature, and dream literature of the Qajar era. This book will be of interest to scholars and students with an interest in Iranian studies, Iranian history, Persian literature and human rights.

Iranian Women and Gender in the Iran-Iraq War

Author : Mateo Mohammad Farzaneh
Publisher : Syracuse University Press
ISBN 13 : 0815655169
Total Pages : 481 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (156 download)

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Book Synopsis Iranian Women and Gender in the Iran-Iraq War by : Mateo Mohammad Farzaneh

Download or read book Iranian Women and Gender in the Iran-Iraq War written by Mateo Mohammad Farzaneh and published by Syracuse University Press. This book was released on 2021-02-22 with total page 481 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Eighteen months after Iran’s Islamic Revolution in 1979, hundreds of thousands of the country’s women participated in the Iran-Iraq War (1980–88) in a variety of capacities. Iran was divided into women of conservative religious backgrounds who supported the revolution and accepted some of the theocratic regime’s depictions of gender roles, and liberal women more active in civil society before the revolution who challenged the state’s male-dominated gender bias. However, both groups were integral to the war effort, serving as journalists, paramedics, combatants, intelligence officers, medical instructors, and propagandists. Behind the frontlines, women were drivers, surgeons, fundraisers, and community organizers. The war provided women of all social classes the opportunity to assert their role in society, and in doing so, they refused to be marginalized. Despite their significant contributions, women are largely absent from studies on the war. Drawing upon primary sources such as memoirs, wills, interviews, print media coverage, and oral histories, Farzaneh chronicles in copious detail women’s participation on the battlefield, in the household, and everywhere in between.

The Politics of Islamism

Author : John L. Esposito
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319622560
Total Pages : 301 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (196 download)

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Book Synopsis The Politics of Islamism by : John L. Esposito

Download or read book The Politics of Islamism written by John L. Esposito and published by Springer. This book was released on 2017-11-09 with total page 301 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book offers a nuanced and muti-layered approach towards comprehending the possibilities of democratization or likelihood of authoritarian resilience in the Muslim world. The volume highlights the complex diversity within Islamist movements and parties— characterised by internal tensions, struggles and contestations. The very existence of this diversity within and among Islamist movements, and their general willingness to partake in mainstream politics, signals an important transformation in the Muslim world over recent decades. It demonstrates that the Muslim world has gravitated from the simplistic focus on the compatibility or incompatibility of Islam and democracy. Islamist movements and parties embody the multiple manifestations and trajectories within political Islam. The granular case-studies and theological analyses in this volume draw attention to the policy refinements, socio-political reforms and ideological transformations engendered by Muslim intellectuals and Islamist movements and ideologues. The diverse political landscape in the Muslim world is inextricably linked to the socio-political and theological shifts within Islamism—in particular, the yearning for greater social, economic and political justice, a yearning that lies at the core of an inclusive wasatiyyah Islam.

The Shah’s Imperial Celebrations of 1971

Author : Robert Steele
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1838604189
Total Pages : 233 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (386 download)

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Book Synopsis The Shah’s Imperial Celebrations of 1971 by : Robert Steele

Download or read book The Shah’s Imperial Celebrations of 1971 written by Robert Steele and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2020-10-15 with total page 233 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In October 1971 Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran, held a celebration to commemorate the 2500th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great. Dozens of heads of state descended on Persepolis for these Celebrations, where they were regaled to sumptuous banquets and entertainment. Critical journalists in Western Europe and North America lambasted the Shah for holding such a decadent event while many of his people lived in poverty. Due to the overwhelmingly negative press at the time, the event is still today widely remembered as a catastrophic failure.It is even said by many to have sparked the unrest that eventually led to the revolution and the Shah's downfall in 1979. In this first comprehensive academic study of the 2500th Anniversary Celebrations, Robert Steele looks beyond the pomp and splendour to examine the events' origins, the goals the organisers set out to achieve with them and the extent to which these goals were accomplished. The book seeks to place the Celebrations in the context of the Shah's rise, rather than his fall, uncovering the unparalleled international cultural and scholarly operation that was spurred by the Iranian regime for the occasion, exploring the effects the event had on Iran's tourism industry and questioning narratives of the event's cost.

The Caliph and the Imam

Author : Toby Matthiesen
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0198806558
Total Pages : 961 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (988 download)

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Book Synopsis The Caliph and the Imam by : Toby Matthiesen

Download or read book The Caliph and the Imam written by Toby Matthiesen and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2023-03-09 with total page 961 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The authoritative account of the sectarian division that for centuries has shaped events in the Middle East and the Islamic world. In 632, soon after the prophet Muhammad died, a struggle broke out among his followers as to who would succeed him. The majority argued that the new leader of Islam should be elected by the community's elite. Others believed only members of Muhammad's family could lead. This dispute over whoshould guide Muslims, the appointed Caliph or the bloodline Imam, marks the origin of the Sunni-Shii split in Islam. Toby Matthiesen explores this hugely significant division from its origins to thepresent day. Moving chronologically, his book sheds light on the many ways that it has shaped the Islamic world, outlining how over the centuries Sunnism and Shiism became Islams two main branches, particularly after the Muslim Empires embraced sectarian identity. It reveals how colonial rule institutionalised divisions between Sunnism and Shiism both on the Indian subcontinent and in the greater Middle East, giving rise to pan-Islamic resistance and Sunni and Shii revivalism. It then focuseson the fall-out from the 1979 revolution in Iran and the US-led military intervention in Iraq. As Matthiesen shows, however, though Sunnism and Shiism have had a long and antagonistic history, mostMuslims have led lives characterised by confessional ambiguity and peaceful co-existence. Tensions arise when sectarian identity becomes linked to politics. Based on a synthesis of decades of scholarship in numerous languages, The Caliph and the Imam will become the standard text for readers looking for a deeper understanding of contemporary sectarian conflict and its historical roots.

Exile and the Nation

Author : Afshin Marashi
Publisher : University of Texas Press
ISBN 13 : 1477320792
Total Pages : 329 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (773 download)

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Book Synopsis Exile and the Nation by : Afshin Marashi

Download or read book Exile and the Nation written by Afshin Marashi and published by University of Texas Press. This book was released on 2020-06-08 with total page 329 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the aftermath of the seventh-century Islamic conquest of Iran, Zoroastrians departed for India. Known as the Parsis, they slowly lost contact with their ancestral land until the nineteenth century, when steam-powered sea travel, the increased circulation of Zoroastrian-themed books, and the philanthropic efforts of Parsi benefactors sparked a new era of interaction between the two groups. Tracing the cultural and intellectual exchange between Iranian nationalists and the Parsi community during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Exile and the Nation shows how this interchange led to the collective reimagining of Parsi and Iranian national identity—and the influence of antiquity on modern Iranian nationalism, which previously rested solely on European forms of thought. Iranian nationalism, Afshin Marashi argues, was also the byproduct of the complex history resulting from the demise of the early modern Persianate cultural system, as well as one of the many cultural heterodoxies produced within the Indian Ocean world. Crossing the boundaries of numerous fields of study, this book reframes Iranian nationalism within the context of the connected, transnational, and global history of the modern era.

Both Eastern and Western

Author : Afshin Matin-Asgari
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 110856948X
Total Pages : 373 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (85 download)

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Book Synopsis Both Eastern and Western by : Afshin Matin-Asgari

Download or read book Both Eastern and Western written by Afshin Matin-Asgari and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2018-08-16 with total page 373 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, many Western observers of Iran have seen the country caught between Eastern history and 'Western' modernity, between religion and secularity. As a result, analysis of political philosophy preceding the Revolution has become subsumed by this narrative. Here, Afshin Matin-Asgari proposes a revisionist work of intellectual history, challenging many of the dominant paradigms in Iranian and Middle Eastern historiography and offering a new narration. In charting the intellectual construction of Iranian modernity during the twentieth century, Matin-Asgari focuses on broad patterns of influential ideas and their relation to each other. These intellectual trends are studied in a global historical context, leading to the assertion that Iranian modernity has been sustained by at least a century of intense intellectual interaction with global ideologies. Turning many prevailing narratives on their heads, the author concludes that modern Iran can be seen as, culturally and intellectually, both Eastern and Western.

Constitutional Law, Religion and Equal Liberty

Author : Azin Tadjdini
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 0429576587
Total Pages : 135 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (295 download)

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Book Synopsis Constitutional Law, Religion and Equal Liberty by : Azin Tadjdini

Download or read book Constitutional Law, Religion and Equal Liberty written by Azin Tadjdini and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2019-09-19 with total page 135 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: During the 20th century many countries embarked on a process of constitutional secularization by which the role of religion gradually became limited. Yet, by the late 20th century, and increasingly following the end of the Cold War, this development began to be challenged. This book examines the return of religion in constitutions through the concept of constitutional de-secularization. It places this phenomenon in the context of the constitutional memory of the countries in which it has taken place and critically examines it against the development and standards of constitutionalism, as the prevailing constitutional legal and political theory. Central to this analysis is the impact of constitutional de-secularization on the regulation of equality in liberty, that is, both the regulation of constitutional rights and the scope for equality of those who are granted such rights. The book argues that equal liberty forms an essential part of constitutionalism as a theory, and that constitutionalism therefore entails a continuous development towards expanding it. The first and second part of the book presents a conceptual framework for the study of constitutional de-secularization. The third part presents and analyses three cases of constitutional de-secularization in Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq. The book will be of interest to researchers and policy-makers interested in constitutional history and theory, and the role of religion in law and its compatibility with human rights.

Iran

Author : Michael Axworthy
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 019023296X
Total Pages : 225 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (92 download)

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Book Synopsis Iran by : Michael Axworthy

Download or read book Iran written by Michael Axworthy and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2017 with total page 225 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since the beginning of recorded history, Iran/Persia has been one of the most important world civilizations. Iran remains a distinct civilization today despite its status as a major Islamic state with broad regional influence and its deep integration into the global economy through its vast energy reserves. Yet the close attention paid to Iran in recent decades stems from the impact of the 1979 revolution, which unleashed ideological shock waves throughout the Middle East that reverberate to this day. Many observers look at Iran through the prism of the Islamic Republic's adversarial relationship with the US, Israel, and Sunni nations in its region, yet as Michael Axworthy shows in Iran: What Everyone Needs to Know(R), there is much more to contemporary Iran than its fraught and complicated foreign relations. He begins with a concise account of Iranian history from ancient times to the late twentieth century, following that with sharp summaries of the key events since the1979 revolution. The final section of the book focuses on Iran today--its culture, economy, politics, and people--and assesses the challenges that the nation will face in coming years. Iran will be an essential overview of a complex and important nation that has occupied world headlines for nearly four decades.

Iran's Experiment with Parliamentary Governance

Author : Mangol Bayat
Publisher : Syracuse University Press
ISBN 13 : 0815654995
Total Pages : 523 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (156 download)

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Book Synopsis Iran's Experiment with Parliamentary Governance by : Mangol Bayat

Download or read book Iran's Experiment with Parliamentary Governance written by Mangol Bayat and published by Syracuse University Press. This book was released on 2020-08-17 with total page 523 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: For the past several decades, scholars have studied and written about the Iranian constitutional revolution with the 1979 Islamic Revolution as a subtext, obscuring the secularist trend that characterized its very nature. Constitutionalist leaders represented a diverse composite of beliefs, yet they all shared a similar vision of a new Iran, one that included far-reaching modernizing reforms and concepts rooted in the European Enlightenment. The second national assembly (majles), during its brief two-year term, aspired to legislate these reforms in one of the most important experiments in parliamentary governance. Mangol Bayat provides a much-needed detailed analysis of this historic episode, examining the national and international actors, and the political climate that engendered one crisis after another, ultimately leading to its fateful end. Bayat highlights the radical transformation of old institutions and the innovation of new ones, and most importantly, shows how this term provided a reasonably successful model of parliament imposing its will on the executive power that was primarily composed of old-guard, elite leaders. At the same time, Bayat challenges the traditional perception among scholars that reform attempts failed due to sectarian politics and ideological differences.