Relationship Between School Climate And Student Achievement In Middle Schools

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Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement in Middle Schools

Author : Brad Boykin
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (141 download)

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Book Synopsis Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement in Middle Schools by : Brad Boykin

Download or read book Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement in Middle Schools written by Brad Boykin and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Author's abstract: Administrators are charged with making decisions and implementing strategies to improve a school's climate and student achievement. Because school climate and student achievement are interrelated, it would benefit administrators to understand which areas of school climate have the greatest impact on student achievement. The State of Georgia measures school climate and achievement with its school accountability measure, College and Career Ready Performance Index (CCRPI). This study employed a quantitative research design using archival data from CCRPI over two years to examine the relationship between school climate and student achievement. The researcher used Pearson's r correlation and multiple regression analysis to examine the relationship between the two components and the predictive effect of each school climate domain on student achievement for traditionally structured middle schools in the State of Georgia. Findings revealed that all four components of school climate, Survey Score, Discipline Score, Safe and Substance-Free Learning Environment Score, and Attendance Score were all related to student achievement. In addition, the Survey Score and Discipline score had the strongest relationship and was the most significant predictor of student achievement. Findings align with those identified in the literature and provide administrators with essential information to strategically make decisions involving processes and procedures that impact these areas. Future research is needed to determine whether the relationship between school climate and student achievement is similar for elementary, middle, or high schools. In addition, separating the data into rural, suburban, and urban schools and running similar tests may also help administrators specifically in those areas.

The Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement at the Middle School Level in Georgia

Author : Curtis Brett Wallace
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 90 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (12 download)

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Book Synopsis The Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement at the Middle School Level in Georgia by : Curtis Brett Wallace

Download or read book The Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement at the Middle School Level in Georgia written by Curtis Brett Wallace and published by . This book was released on 2020 with total page 90 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: School leaders from all over our nation are under scrutiny and pressure to raise their students’ academic achievement. Good standards-based classroom teaching, supportive teachers, administrators, and parents, and a motivated student all make for a high achieving student. But what is the relationship of the school’s climate to the achievement level? Does the student’s socioeconomic status affect academic achievement? This study collected data from 431 traditional public middle schools in the state of Georgia serving students in Grade 6 through Grade 8 exclusively during the 2017-18 school year. A stepwise multiple regression was used to examine the relationships in both research questions. The stepwise process allowed for the researcher to increase accuracy of results by prioritizing predicting variables of Free/Reduced rate, Climate score, and Administrator Attendance entered by correlation rate with the outcome variables of Mathematics Mean Scale Score and English/Language Arts Mean Scale Score. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship of school climate and student achievement at the middle school level in Georgia. A quantitative predictive research design was used to measure the relationship between the variables. A multiple regression analysis in this study will provide information for school principals as to the significance of the relationship and of the climate of the school on student achievement. The results of the study will be a valuable resource for Georgia school leaders who must respond to the demands for increased student achievement while attracting and retaining teachers. If school climate has a significant impact on student achievement, then Georgia school leaders may develop plans to improve school climate (Fuller, Young, & Baker, 2010) and simultaneously create and sustain high-quality teams in response to increasing teacher vacancies and decreasing teacher applicants as reported by the Georgia Department of Education (Owens, 2015).

Transformative Classroom Management

Author : John Shindler
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 0470565500
Total Pages : 391 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (75 download)

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Book Synopsis Transformative Classroom Management by : John Shindler

Download or read book Transformative Classroom Management written by John Shindler and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2009-11-04 with total page 391 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Transformative Classroom Management The natural condition of any classroom is harmonious, satisfying, and productive, so why do so many teachers struggle with problems of apathy, hostility, anxiety, inefficiency, and resistance? In this groundbreaking book, education expert John Shindler presents a powerful model, Transformative Classroom Management (TCM), that can be implemented by any teacher to restore the natural positive feelings in his or her classroom—the love of learning, collaboration, inspiration, and giving—and create a productive learning environment in which all students can achieve. Unlike other classroom management systems that view problems as something to be “handled,” TCM offers suggestions for creating optimal conditions for learning, performance, motivation, and growth. This practical book shows teachers how to abandon ineffective short-term gimmicks, bribes, and punishments and adopt the proven management practices and new habits of mind that will transform their classrooms. Praise for Transformative Classroom Management “Transformative Classroom Management is a practical resource that explains the how and why of classroom management for novice and veteran teachers. Dr. Shindler recognizes the importance of preserving the teacher’s sanity while ensuring the student’s development of a personal sense of responsibility and a positive self-esteem.” —Eileen Matus, principal, South Toms River Elementary School, New Jersey “I have read many other management books by other authors, but Transformative Classroom Management has been the best so far at demystifying the invisible forces in the classroom.” —WILL McELROY, 4th grade teacher, Los Angeles United School District “This book was an invaluable tool for me during my student teaching. It served as a reference book that I found myself continually drawn to while struggling to find ways to effectively manage 29 first graders. The ideas, concepts and suggestions in the book were so innovative and helpful that even my Master Teacher found herself implementing some of the ideas! A must have for all student teachers!” —Carol Gillon, student teacher, Seattle University “Insightful and thoroughly researched, Transformative Classroom Management is an invaluable tool to help teachers, newbies and veterans alike, develop fully functional and engaged learning communities.” —LISA GAMACHE RODRIGUEZ, teacher, Los Angeles Unified School District

An Investigation of the Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement in Michigan Middle Schools

Author : Beth Anne Feiten
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 142 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (698 download)

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Book Synopsis An Investigation of the Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement in Michigan Middle Schools by : Beth Anne Feiten

Download or read book An Investigation of the Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement in Michigan Middle Schools written by Beth Anne Feiten and published by . This book was released on 2010 with total page 142 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

School Climate and Student Achievement

Author : Jacqueline Rayna Delisi
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 244 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (43 download)

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Book Synopsis School Climate and Student Achievement by : Jacqueline Rayna Delisi

Download or read book School Climate and Student Achievement written by Jacqueline Rayna Delisi and published by . This book was released on 2008 with total page 244 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Abstract: This mixed-methods study asked whether the climates of urban middle schools are changing in response to educational accountability. Prior research has demonstrated a link between student academic achievement and aspects of the school climate, particularly academic emphasis, the quality of relationships, student behavior, administrator leadership, and teacher empowerment. Yet, many have argued that to meet the demands of reforms designed to hold schools accountable for student test scores, administrators and teachers are narrowly focusing only on that which will be tested. Teachers and students from two urban middle schools with differing state accountability status were surveyed regarding their perceptions of the school's climate. Interviews were conducted with teachers and administrators from each school. School documents and observations provided additional data regarding structural changes and interactions across both schools. The analysis compared the perceptions of students and teachers between schools and examined changes that had been made in response to accountability reforms. Results indicated that the school that had improved its accountability status increased data-driven decision making and instruction, improved perceptions of student behavior and teacher caring, and improved teachers' perceptions of their influence on student achievement and school-level reforms. Teachers at this school, however, also cited issues with teacher relations, and expressed an interest in broadening the educational offerings at the school to include more extra-curricular programming. The school that has not shown improvements in accountability status demonstrated continual issues with student behavior. Teachers perceived little support from administrators. Additionally, teachers focused on remedial test taking skills and expressed a "holistic" view of students, focusing on outside influences on learning and their own attempts to relate state standards to the students' lives. The author concludes that improvements in accountability status were related to an increase in data-driven decision-making and academic press, yet these did not occur at the expense of a culture of caring. Recommendations for school administrators, policy-makers and the implications for further study are discussed.

The Factors Effecting Student Achievement

Author : Engin Karadağ
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319560832
Total Pages : 333 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (195 download)

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Book Synopsis The Factors Effecting Student Achievement by : Engin Karadağ

Download or read book The Factors Effecting Student Achievement written by Engin Karadağ and published by Springer. This book was released on 2017-05-14 with total page 333 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book focuses on the effect of psychological, social and demographic variables on student achievement and summarizes the current research findings in the field. It addresses the need for inclusive and interpretive studies in the field in order to interpret student achievement literature and suggests new pathways for further studies. Appropriately, a meta-analysis approach is used by the contributors to show the big picture to the researchers by analyzing and combining the findings from different independent studies. In particular, the authors compile various studies examining the relationship between student achievement and 21 psychological, social and demographic variables separately. The philosophy behind this book is to direct future research and practices rather than addressing the limits of current studies.

Engaging Schools

Author : Institute of Medicine
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309084350
Total Pages : 303 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (9 download)

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Book Synopsis Engaging Schools by : Institute of Medicine

Download or read book Engaging Schools written by Institute of Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2003-12-21 with total page 303 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: When it comes to motivating people to learn, disadvantaged urban adolescents are usually perceived as a hard sell. Yet, in a recent MetLife survey, 89 percent of the low-income students claimed "I really want to learn" applied to them. What is it about the school environmentâ€"pedagogy, curriculum, climate, organizationâ€"that encourages or discourages engagement in school activities? How do peers, family, and community affect adolescents' attitudes towards learning? Engaging Schools reviews current research on what shapes adolescents' school engagement and motivation to learnâ€"including new findings on students' sense of belongingâ€"and looks at ways these can be used to reform urban high schools. This book discusses what changes hold the greatest promise for increasing students' motivation to learn in these schools. It looks at various approaches to reform through different methods of instruction and assessment, adjustments in school size, vocational teaching, and other key areas. Examples of innovative schools, classrooms, and out-of-school programs that have proved successful in getting high school kids excited about learning are also included.

School Climate

Author : H. Jerome Freiberg
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1135714517
Total Pages : 240 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (357 download)

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Book Synopsis School Climate by : H. Jerome Freiberg

Download or read book School Climate written by H. Jerome Freiberg and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2005-08-02 with total page 240 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Like a strong foundation in a house, the climate of a school is the foundation that supports the structures of teaching and learning. This book provides a framework for educators to look at school and classroom climates using both informal and formal measures. Each chapter focuses on a different aspect of climate and details techniques which may be used by heads or classroom teachers to judge the health of their learning environment. The book sets out to enhance understanding of the components of a healthy learning environment and the tools needed to improve that environment. It also looks at ways to assess the impact of change activities in improving and sustaining educational excellence. The international team of contributors bring perspectives from the school systems in America, UK, Australia and Holland.

Bullying, School Violence, and Climate in Evolving Contexts

Author : Ron Avi Astor
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190663065
Total Pages : 288 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (96 download)

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Book Synopsis Bullying, School Violence, and Climate in Evolving Contexts by : Ron Avi Astor

Download or read book Bullying, School Violence, and Climate in Evolving Contexts written by Ron Avi Astor and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2018-12-03 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since 2005, bullying, school violence, and school safety literatures have expanded dramatically in content, disciplines, and empirical studies. However, despite this massive expansion of research, there has also been a surprising lack of theoretical and empirical direction to guide efforts on how to advance basic science and practical applications of this growing scientific area of interest. Bullying, School Violence, and Climate in Evolving Contexts outlines a novel unifying model that brings together previously distinct literatures on a wide range of issues (e.g., the structure of school violence and bullying, similarities and differences across cultural groups, weapons in schools, student suicidal ideation and behaviors, teacher-student and student-teacher victimization, sexual harassment, cyberbullying, school climate, etc.). Drawing from numerous large-scale research studies from around the globe, the authors examine the theoretical foundations of school safety and bullying and propose a series of groundbreaking new theoretical and practice proposals. This is a perfect book for doctoral candidates, young academics hoping to forge into new areas of bullying research, and seasoned scholars who delve into the conceptual areas of school violence and bullying.

Creating Organizationally Healthy and Effective Middle Schools

Author : Kathleen Roney
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 244 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Creating Organizationally Healthy and Effective Middle Schools by : Kathleen Roney

Download or read book Creating Organizationally Healthy and Effective Middle Schools written by Kathleen Roney and published by . This book was released on 2008 with total page 244 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

The Psychology of School Climate

Author : Garry Wade McGiboney
Publisher : Cambridge Scholars Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1443896683
Total Pages : 270 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (438 download)

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Book Synopsis The Psychology of School Climate by : Garry Wade McGiboney

Download or read book The Psychology of School Climate written by Garry Wade McGiboney and published by Cambridge Scholars Publishing. This book was released on 2016-06-22 with total page 270 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Many people have become impatient with school reform and school improvement efforts that fail to include school climate. The importance of a positive school climate is emerging in current research, not only as an essential component of school reform and school improvement, but also as a necessary framework for maintaining excellent schools and providing healthy and safe schools for all students. Research strongly suggests that educators and policy makers have a lot to learn about the importance of school climate for school safety and academic success. With the growing body of research regarding school climate, it is important to study the research and understand how the psychology of school climate and how the elements of school climate can be viewed from a population-based perspective, as well as understanding the impact of school climate on individual students. This review of school climate research includes hundreds of articles and research papers of different perspectives from around the world in numerous cultures. School climate is becoming a science of education and psychology that must be studied further in order to understand the dynamic nature of learning environments, to identify elements that support or threaten the learning environment, and to learn how to improve the conditions for learning in all schools.

How Are Middle School Climate and Academic Performance Related Across Schools and Over Time?

Author : Adam Voight
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 29 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (16 download)

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Book Synopsis How Are Middle School Climate and Academic Performance Related Across Schools and Over Time? by : Adam Voight

Download or read book How Are Middle School Climate and Academic Performance Related Across Schools and Over Time? written by Adam Voight and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page 29 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A growing number of educators concur that, in order to improve student academic performance, schools need to focus not only on students' academic needs but also on their social, emotional, and material needs (Piscatelli & Lee, 2011). As a result, school climate--the social, emotional, and physical characteristics of a school community (Cohen, McCabe, Michelli, & Pickeral, 2009)--is gaining more attention as a lever to improve student academic performance. Most studies on the relationship between school climate and academic performance assert that a more positive school climate promotes higher academic performance. But evidence of a relationship between the two is weak. These studies generally are based on data collected at a single point in time and compare academic performance across schools with different school climates. They show that academic performance is higher in schools with a more positive school climate at single points in time. However, little evidence exists that changes in school climate over time are associated with changes in academic performance. This study used grade 7 student data from the California Healthy Kids Survey and administrative data for approximately 1,000 middle schools in California for 2004/05-2010/11 to measure students' perceptions about six domains of school climate. Schools with a positive school climate were those in which students reported high levels of safety/connectedness, caring relationships with adults, and meaningful student participation and low rates of substance use at school, bullying/discrimination, and student delinquency. School-level academic performance was measured using grade 7 California Standards Test scores in English language arts and math. The study team examined the relationship between school climate and academic performance across schools to determine whether in a given year California middle schools with a more positive school climate had higher academic performance. The study team also sought to determine how academic performance for a given school improved as school climate improved by examining how changes in school climate over two-year intervals were related to changes in average academic performance. Key findings include: (1) Schools with a more positive student-reported school climate had higher academic performance in English language arts and math; (2) Changes in a school's student-reported school climate over time were associated with changes in academic performance at that school; and (3) The changes in academic performance within a school that were associated with changes in student-reported school climate over time were substantially smaller than the differences in academic performance across schools with different school climate values in a given year. For example, in a given year schools at the 50th percentile on school climate were at the 48th percentile on math performance, on average, while schools at the 60th percentile on school climate were at the 51st percentile on math performance. This finding suggests that an improvement of 10 percentile points in school climate would be associated with an average 3 percentile point increase in academic performance. However, when followed over time, schools with a 10 percentile point increase in student perceptions of school climate averaged a less than 1 percentile point increase in academic performance. The following are appended: (1) School climate domains measured on the California Healthy Kids Survey, grade 7 students; (2) Data and methodology; and (3) Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between school climate and academic performance in percentile point and standard deviation metrics.

The Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement

Author : Michele A. Cone
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781392113103
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (131 download)

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Book Synopsis The Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement by : Michele A. Cone

Download or read book The Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement written by Michele A. Cone and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The purpose of this study was to determine if a significant relationship exists between school climate and student achievement. Research shows aspects of school climate impact students, parents, teachers and administrators. Climate is global to the school yet exists as a microclimate in the classroom. The influencers of climate and reaction to climate are intertwined; as one influences the others, a variety of perspectives contribute to the overall picture. This study considers the teacher perspective as an indicator of climate as part of overall organizational health. As one must consider organizational health as a pertinent part of overall school climate, this research study utilized a reduced form of the Purdue Teacher Opinionaire designed by Bentley and Rempel to measure teacher morale (1980). Teachers from two schools within one district voluntarily and anonymously answered questions on ten subtopics reflecting their experiences as a teacher in the school environment. This organizational health inventory provided feedback from participants on 10 factors indicating levels of agreement or disagreement on a four point Likert scale (from 4 = strongly agree to 1= strongly disagree). Teachers were also asked to indicate years of experience on the presurvey question, as this study also considered if factors such as teacher years of experience had any impact on teacher perspective of climate. School climate data and data from the averages of standardized PARCC test scores per school and subject area were analyzed using Bivariate Correlation tests, revealing no significant relationship between school climate and student achievement. Although survey data provided potential consideration for areas of improvement for the district in the study, recommendations by the researcher are for further study in a wider scope to increase generalizability. (ProQuest abstract).

Climate and Student Performance in Tennessee Middle Schools

Author : Myrna Gail Sumner
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 137 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (715 download)

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Book Synopsis Climate and Student Performance in Tennessee Middle Schools by : Myrna Gail Sumner

Download or read book Climate and Student Performance in Tennessee Middle Schools written by Myrna Gail Sumner and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page 137 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The purpose of this study was to extend previous research by investigating the relationship between school climate and student performance (value-added gains) in selected middle schools. In order to confirm previous research with the selected instrument, school climate and student achievement were also compared. This study used a correlation analysis design. Forty middle schools from across Tennessee were used as a population sample. The data sources were the School Climate Inventory (SCI), and the State of Tennessee Report Card, 2005. Criterion referenced data and value-added gain data were collected from the Report Card. Aggregate achievement scores and aggregate performance (value-added) scores in language arts, math, science, and social studies were compared with school climate scores using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient. There is a relationship between overall school climate and at least one aspect of student performance, that of language arts. Language arts performance scores correlated significantly with 5 of the 7 climate subscales. Significant correlations of science performance scores with the climate subscale of expectation, as well as the social studies performance scores with the climate subscale of order were also found. This study also affirmed previous research that showed a relationship between the academic emphasis of climate and student achievement.

Exploring the Relationship Between the Principal's Self-efficacy, School Climate, and Student Achievement at the Middle Level

Author : Franklin W. Reese
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 147 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (131 download)

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Book Synopsis Exploring the Relationship Between the Principal's Self-efficacy, School Climate, and Student Achievement at the Middle Level by : Franklin W. Reese

Download or read book Exploring the Relationship Between the Principal's Self-efficacy, School Climate, and Student Achievement at the Middle Level written by Franklin W. Reese and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 147 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: School principals are assumed to possess strong self-efficacy perceptions, however heightened demands and increased accountability have changed the principals' role in schools. As a result, some principals have claimed that the position has become too complex and stressful. These conditions have caused a growing number of building principals to question their ability to be successful school leaders. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the self-efficacy perceptions of middle school principals, the climate of their schools, and the achievement of their students. The participating volunteers involved in the study included building principals and faculty members from four middle schools located in southeastern Pennsylvania. Data were collected and triangulated by utilizing a principal self-efficacy survey, a school climate index, researcher developed open-ended and interview questions, as well as the schools' recent three-year average of the PSSA results in mathematics and reading. Findings from this study indicated that principals held moderately strong self-efficacy perceptions and reported that time and experience were key factors in helping them develop necessary skills and abilities. Principals believed that their role has become more demanding, time-consuming, and managerial which has hindered their instructional leadership opportunities. While the data provided some evidence to suggest that principals' self-efficacy may have a positive influence on students' PSSA proficiency, this determination remains inconclusive due to a number of potential limitations identified in the study. Data revealed little correlation between the principals' self-efficacy and school climate conditions.

The Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement in Low Income Elementary Schools

Author : Ella Benson
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 304 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (525 download)

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Book Synopsis The Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement in Low Income Elementary Schools by : Ella Benson

Download or read book The Relationship Between School Climate and Student Achievement in Low Income Elementary Schools written by Ella Benson and published by . This book was released on 2003 with total page 304 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Teacher Quality, Instructional Quality and Student Outcomes

Author : Trude Nilsen
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319412523
Total Pages : 167 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (194 download)

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Book Synopsis Teacher Quality, Instructional Quality and Student Outcomes by : Trude Nilsen

Download or read book Teacher Quality, Instructional Quality and Student Outcomes written by Trude Nilsen and published by Springer. This book was released on 2016-09-19 with total page 167 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume offers insights from modeling relations between teacher quality, instructional quality and student outcomes in mathematics across countries. The relations explored take the educational context, such as school climate, into account. The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement’s Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) is the only international large-scale study possessing a design framework that enables investigation of relations between teachers, their teaching, and student outcomes in mathematics. TIMSS provides both student achievement data and contextual background data from schools, teachers, students and parents, for over 60 countries. This book makes a major contribution to the field of educational effectiveness, especially teaching effectiveness, where cross-cultural comparisons are scarce. For readers interested in teacher quality, instructional quality, and student achievement and motivation in mathematics, the comparisons across cultures, grades, and time are insightful and thought-provoking. For readers interested in methodology, the advanced analytical methods, combined with application of methods new to educational research, illustrate interesting novel directions in methodology and the secondary analysis of international large-scale assessment (ILSA).