Ramayana Revisited

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Ramayana Revisited

Author : Vipul Maheshwari
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 9389351073
Total Pages : 202 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (893 download)

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Book Synopsis Ramayana Revisited by : Vipul Maheshwari

Download or read book Ramayana Revisited written by Vipul Maheshwari and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2020-10-18 with total page 202 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Rama, Maryada Purushottam, the king of Ayodhya, banished his beloved queen, in whose chastity he had complete faith, simply because his subjects disapproved of his accepting a wife who had spent a year in the house of her abductor. The king submitted to the will of the people though it broke his heart. Was his stand justified? Could Manthara be held solely responsible for the banishment of Rama and the subsequent death of Dasharatha? Was Ahalya an adulteress or a victim of sexual assault? Did the actions of the serial molester Ravana stand legal scrutiny? Was Lakshmana, a prince of Ayodhya, legally justified in mutilating Surpanakha? Was his elder brother Rama an accomplice in that action? It was said in ancient India, a king who, after having sworn to safeguard his subjects, failed to protect should be executed like a mad dog. Such a provision indicated that sovereignty was based on an implied social contract, and if the king violated the traditional pact, he forfeited his kingship. So, a king had to be just as justice trickled down from the crown. What happens though if the events of yore are retold and characters made to stand trial in today's time? Here is an attempt, unexplored so far, to retell the significant happenings narrated in the Ramayana through the legal prism of the Indian Penal Code. Each chapter comprises a prosecution version, citations of relevant provisions from the IPC, deposition of witnesses and the defence argument. Ramayana Revisited succeeds in bringing in all alternative perspectives, leaving the final judgement to the discretion of the reader.

The Ramayana Revisited

Author : Mandakranta Bose
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0195168321
Total Pages : 398 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (951 download)

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Book Synopsis The Ramayana Revisited by : Mandakranta Bose

Download or read book The Ramayana Revisited written by Mandakranta Bose and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2004-09-30 with total page 398 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: 14 leading 'Ramayana' scholars examine the epic in its myriad contexts throughout South and Southeast Asia. They explore the role the narrative plays in societies as varied as India Indonesia, Thailand and Cambodia. The essays also expand the understanding of the 'text' to include non-verbal renditions of the epic.

Ramayana Stories in Modern South India

Author : Paula Richman
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253219531
Total Pages : 285 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (532 download)

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Book Synopsis Ramayana Stories in Modern South India by : Paula Richman

Download or read book Ramayana Stories in Modern South India written by Paula Richman and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2008-03-06 with total page 285 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Fresh perspectives on the classic Indiana epic.

The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume VI

Author :
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 1400833264
Total Pages : 1680 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (8 download)

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Book Synopsis The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume VI by :

Download or read book The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume VI written by and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2009-07-06 with total page 1680 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The sixth book of the Ramayana of Valmiki, the Yuddhakanda, recounts the final dramatic war between the forces of good led by the exiled prince Rama, and the forces of evil commanded by the arch demon Ravana. The hero Rama's primary purpose in the battle is to rescue the abducted princess Sita and destroy the demon king. However, the confrontation also marks the turning point for the divine mission of the Ramavatara, the incarnation of Lord Visnu as a human prince, who will restore righteousness to a world on the brink of chaos. The book ends with the gods' revelation to Rama of his true divine nature, his emotional reunion with his beloved wife, his long-delayed consecration as king of Kosala, and his restoration of a utopian age. The Yuddhakanda contains some of the most extraordinary events and larger-than-life characters to be found anywhere in world literature. This sixth volume in the critical edition and translation of the Valmiki Ramayana includes an extensive introduction, exhaustive notes, and a comprehensive bibliography.

Ayodhya Revisited

Author : Kunal Kishore
Publisher : Prabhat Prakashan
ISBN 13 : 8184303572
Total Pages : 822 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (843 download)

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Book Synopsis Ayodhya Revisited by : Kunal Kishore

Download or read book Ayodhya Revisited written by Kunal Kishore and published by Prabhat Prakashan. This book was released on 2016-01-01 with total page 822 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This work of monumental research is a treatise on Ayodhyã with utmost authenticity and absolute accuracy. Based on original sources and scientific investigation it propounds a new thesis; which demolishes many popular perceptions. It exonerates the intrepid warrior Babur from the charge of demolishing a temple on the birthplace of Rāma and constructing the mosque which has been a source of contention and dissension for long. It further shows how inscriptions in the mosque were factitious and Mir Baqi of inscriptions is a fictitious person different from Baqi Tashkindi/ Shegawal of the Baburnama. The book produces incontrovertible evidence which indubitably proves that there existed a Rãma temple on the Rămajanmabhumi. The exact birthplace of Rāma was earmarked by a rectangular Bedi measuring 18' 9" in length and 15' in width; and was located in the inner portion of the disputed shrine. The demolition of the temple and the construction of the mosque did not take place in 1528 A.D. but in c. 1660 A.D. when Fedai Khan was the Governor of Aurangzeb at Ayodhyã. It is a historical fact that until the British takeover of Awadh administration in 1858 both the Hindus and Muslims used to perform puja and offer Namaz respectively inside it. All Mughal Emperors from Babur to Shah Jahan were magnanimous and liberal rulers and the Bairãgìs of Ayodhyã enjoyed patronage of the first four Nawabs of Awadh. However; during the long rule of Aurangzeb the country was engulfed in the fire of fanaticism. It has been shown in this book how an absolutely unfounded rumour in 1855 A.D. that the Hanumangarhi temple was constructed on the site of a mosque created cleavage between the two communities; and the resultant festering wounds have not healed despite best efforts by saner elements of both the communities. The book exposes many eminent historians' hypocrisy and their lack of objectivity in writing history and it may be said that their presentation of contrived history on Ayodhya has caused irreparable damage to the cause of harmonizing communal relations in the country. In contrast; this text earnestly tries to take away the toxin from the polluted body of Indian politics. For the first time a number of unexplored documents have been incorporated in this book as evidence; and it may be proclaimed with pride that this book contains much more information on Ayodhyã than available hitherto. Justice G.B. Patnaik; a former Chief Justice of India; after going through the manuscript; has endorsed the author's thesis in his Foreword. It is hoped that the book will put a quietus to the long-standing dispute. Selected Stories of Honoré de Balzac by Honoré de Balzac: In this collection, Honoré de Balzac presents a selection of his acclaimed short stories, showcasing his incredible talent for vivid storytelling and character development. With its rich language and engaging narratives, this book is a must-read for fans of classical literature. Key Aspects of the Book "Selected Stories of Honoré de Balzac": Collection of Short Stories: The book features a collection of acclaimed short stories by Honoré de Balzac. Vivid Storytelling and Character Development: The stories showcase Balzac's incredible talent for vivid storytelling and character development. Useful for Literature Enthusiasts: The book is useful for fans of classical literature and those interested in the works of Balzac. Honoré de Balzac was a French novelist and playwright who is regarded as one of the greatest writers of Western literature. His book, Selected Stories of Honoré de Balzac, is highly regarded for its captivating storytelling and rich language.

The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume VII

Author :
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 140088456X
Total Pages : 1544 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (8 download)

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Book Synopsis The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume VII by :

Download or read book The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume VII written by and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2016-12-20 with total page 1544 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The concluding volume of a critical English edition of the monumental Indian epic The seventh and final book of the monumental Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki, the Uttarakāṇḍa, brings the epic saga to a close with an account of the dramatic events of King Rāma's millennia-long reign. It opens with a colorful history of the demonic race of the rākṣasas and the violent career of Rāma’s villainous foe Rāvaṇa, and later recounts Rāma’s grateful discharge of his allies in the great war at Lankā as well as his romantic reunion with his wife Sītā. But dark clouds gather as Rāma, confronted by scandal over Sītā’s time in captivity under the lustful Rāvaṇa, makes the agonizing decision to banish his beloved wife, now pregnant. As Rāma continues as king, marvelous tales and events unfurl, illustrating the benefits of righteous rule and the perils that await monarchs who fail to address the needs of their subjects. The Uttarakāṇḍa has long served as a point of social and religious controversy largely for its accounts of the banishment of Sītā, as well as of Rāma’s killing of a low-caste ascetic. The translators’ introduction provides a full discussion of these issues and the complex reception history of the Uttarakāṇḍa. This translation of the critical edition also includes exhaustive notes and a comprehensive bibliography.

Gay Tantra in Action

Author : William Schindler
Publisher : Lulu.com
ISBN 13 : 1387178806
Total Pages : 384 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (871 download)

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Book Synopsis Gay Tantra in Action by : William Schindler

Download or read book Gay Tantra in Action written by William Schindler and published by Lulu.com. This book was released on 2017-08-25 with total page 384 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Integrating sexuality with spirituality has been the specialty of traditional Hindu Tantra for at least 1500 years. The short readings in this book adapt the concepts and methods of the ancient tantric tradition for LGBT persons of all genders living in our modern, rapidly changing world. Gay and gender-non-conforming persons have been condemned or ignored by all major religions, and many LGBT persons may reject religion in general, sometimes substituting sex, drugs, or other diversions. Substitutes for true spirituality ultimately fail to remedy the existential conditions of mortality, isolation, and meaningless- ness as only a deep spiritual practice can. These readings demonstrate various ways LGBT people can tap into the deepest currents of human spirituality while recognizing the special spiritual needs and aptitudes that come with an LGBT identity. Gay Tantra teaches us to attain the heights of spiritual enlightenment utilizing fully our LGBT experiences and ways of being in the world.

DK Eyewitness Travel Guide Malaysia and Singapore

Author : DK Travel
Publisher : Penguin
ISBN 13 : 1465452036
Total Pages : 358 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (654 download)

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Book Synopsis DK Eyewitness Travel Guide Malaysia and Singapore by : DK Travel

Download or read book DK Eyewitness Travel Guide Malaysia and Singapore written by DK Travel and published by Penguin. This book was released on 2016-01-12 with total page 358 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: DK Eyewitness Travel Guide: Malaysia and Singapore is your in-depth guide to the very best of this region. Whether you want to discover the best places to spot colorful fish and jungle-dwelling animals like orangutans, or are looking to sample the incredible food in the ultra-modern metropolises of Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, this region offers an astounding range of experiences. Discover DK Eyewitness Travel Guide: Malaysia and Singapore + Detailed itineraries and "don't-miss" destination highlights at a glance. + Illustrated cutaway 3-D drawings of important sights. + Floor plans and guided visitor information for major museums. + Guided walking tours, local drink and dining specialties to try, things to do, and places to eat, drink, and shop by area. + Area maps marked with sights and restaurants. + Detailed city map of Singapore includes street finder index for easy navigation. + Insights into history and culture to help you understand the stories behind the sights. + Suggested day trips and itineraries to explore beyond the city of Singapore. + Hotel and restaurant listings highlight DK Choice special recommendations. With hundreds of full-color photographs, hand-drawn illustrations, and custom maps that illuminate every page, DK Eyewitness Travel Guide: Malaysia and Singapore truly shows you this region as no one else can.

Religion and Gender in the Developing World

Author : Tamsin Bradley
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 0857719181
Total Pages : 289 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (577 download)

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Book Synopsis Religion and Gender in the Developing World by : Tamsin Bradley

Download or read book Religion and Gender in the Developing World written by Tamsin Bradley and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2010-12-07 with total page 289 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Faith-based development organizations have become a central part of the lives of the women of rural Rajasthan, and have come to represent an important aspect of both individual and collective identities.And yet, religious teachings continue to be used to exclude women from public decision making forums and render them vulnerable to increasing levels of domestic violence In a unique, multi-disciplinary approach, combining a range of subjects, Tamsin Bradley provides a unique study of the role of development organizations and faith organizations in the lives of women in rural Rajasthan. Faith and religion emerge as being able to afford a space within which women are able to interact with one another and create an identity for themselves. However, faith proves not just to be a positive sphere in which women are able to assert themselves. Its ambiguity becomes clear as the author explains that religious women often find their visions of social justice and equality marginalised by the dominance of male leadership. Nevertheless, Bradley also look at how religious women challenge male dominance drawing on their beliefs and practices in creative and innovative ways. Thus a complex picture emerges, and including insights from gender studies and anthropology, Bradley argues that religion can both empower and disempower local communities, and the women who live within them. By analysing development through the prism of gender studies, Bradley highlights the complex nature of power relationships that are at the very heart of development agendas and organizations, and offers an invaluable contribution to the understanding of the nexus of varied disciplines in the analysis of women and religion in Rajasthan. This book will be of interest to students, reseachers and policy makers involved in various fields, including those of Development Studies, Religion, Gender Studies and Social Anthropology.

Performing the Ramayana Tradition

Author : Paula Richman
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0197552536
Total Pages : 393 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (975 download)

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Book Synopsis Performing the Ramayana Tradition by : Paula Richman

Download or read book Performing the Ramayana Tradition written by Paula Richman and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2021-05-18 with total page 393 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Ramayana, one of the two pre-eminent Hindu epics, has played a foundational role in many aspects of India's arts and social norms. For centuries, people learned this narrative by watching, listening, and participating in enactments of it. Although the Ramayana's first extant telling in Sanskrit dates back to ancient times, the story has continued to be retold and rethought through the centuries in many of India's regional languages, such as Hindi, Tamil, and Bengali. The narrative has provided the basis for enactments of its episodes in recitation, musical renditions, dance, and avant-garde performances. This volume introduces non-specialists to the Ramayana's major themes and complexities, as well as to the highly nuanced terms in Indian languages used to represent theater and performance. Two introductions orient readers to the history of Ramayana texts by Tulsidas, Valmiki, Kamban, Sankaradeva, and others, as well as to the dramaturgy and aesthetics of their enactments. The contributed essays provide context-specific analyses of diverse Ramayana performance traditions and the narratives from which they draw. The essays are clustered around the shared themes of the politics of caste and gender; the representation of the anti-hero; contemporary re-interpretations of traditional narratives; and the presence of Ramayana discourse in daily life.

Practical Spirituality and Human Development

Author : Ananta Kumar Giri
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 9811308039
Total Pages : 495 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (113 download)

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Book Synopsis Practical Spirituality and Human Development by : Ananta Kumar Giri

Download or read book Practical Spirituality and Human Development written by Ananta Kumar Giri and published by Springer. This book was released on 2018-09-28 with total page 495 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book explores varieties of spiritual movements and alternative experiments for generation of beauty, dignity and dialogues, in a world where the rise of the religious in politics and the public sphere is often accompanied by violence. It examines how spirituality can contribute to human development, social transformations and planetary realizations, urging us to treat each other, and our planet, with evolutionary care and respect. Trans-disciplinary and trans-paradigmatic to its very core, this text opens new pathways of practical spirituality and humanistic action for both scholarship and discourse and offers an invaluable companion for scholars across religious studies, cultural studies and development studies.

Ramayana Theater in Contemporary Southeast Asia

Author : Madoka Fukuoka
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1000589730
Total Pages : 257 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (5 download)

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Book Synopsis Ramayana Theater in Contemporary Southeast Asia by : Madoka Fukuoka

Download or read book Ramayana Theater in Contemporary Southeast Asia written by Madoka Fukuoka and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2022-11-30 with total page 257 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The ancient Indian epic poem Ramayana has been disseminated throughout large tracts of Southeast Asia since the 9th century. Versions of the epic poem have come to adopt and reflect the unique characteristics of the countries and regions where it has gained cultural currency. The epic has been a source of popular themes in both traditional and contemporary art forms, including literature, performing arts, fine arts, and films. This book showcases Ramayana theater as a platform where the multiple meanings and senses of values are negotiated. It focuses on the relationships between the cultural representation and the various meanings of Ramayana theater, as well as other dramatic art forms. Focusing on the various contemporary contexts of art performances where the epic poem has been represented, the book also presents the ideologies and moral values contained in the theatrical forms of the epic poem. It discusses various performance contexts, such as diaspora communities, production of popular content culture, cultural diplomacy, designation as intangible cultural heritage, transmission, tourism, and the representation/exhibition of culture, as well as the performance in rituals. It also includes works of three contemporary and inspiring artists: cross-gender dancer Didik Nini Thowok, animator as well as puppeteer Nanang Ananto Wicaksono, and composer Ken Steven.

The Challenge of the Silver Screen

Author : Freek L. Bakker
Publisher : BRILL
ISBN 13 : 9004194045
Total Pages : 290 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (41 download)

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Book Synopsis The Challenge of the Silver Screen by : Freek L. Bakker

Download or read book The Challenge of the Silver Screen written by Freek L. Bakker and published by BRILL. This book was released on 2009-09-30 with total page 290 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In 1897 – only two years after the invention of film – the first feature film about Jesus appeared. This and other films about Jesus became examples for and an inspiration for films on other important religious figures like Rama, Buddha and Muhammad. Although religious leaders did not always approve of these films, they did find a ready audience among believers. This book explores these films and looks at how these films dealt with the fundamental question of portraying an individual thought to have either divine status or a very special and unique status among human beings. This book will thus benefit not only students of religious film but also those studying the portrayal of central religious figures in the contemporary world.

Primates in History, Myth, Art, and Science

Author : Cecilia Veracini
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1351981870
Total Pages : 794 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (519 download)

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Book Synopsis Primates in History, Myth, Art, and Science by : Cecilia Veracini

Download or read book Primates in History, Myth, Art, and Science written by Cecilia Veracini and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2024-05-15 with total page 794 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Non-human primates (hereafter just primates) play a special role in human societies, especially in regions where modern humans and primates co-exist. Primates feature in myths and legends and in traditional indigenous knowledge. Explorers observed them in the wild and brought them, at great cost, to Europe. There they were valued as pets and for display, their images featured in art and architecture, and where they were literally teased apart by scientists. The international team of contributors to this book draws these different perspectives together to show how primates helped humans better understand their own place in nature. The book will be of interest to undergraduate and graduate students as well scholars in disciplines ranging from anthropology to art history. Key features: Includes contributions from an international team of historians and natural scientists Integrates various perspectives and perceptions of non-human primates across time and place Summarizes the place of non-human primates in science, art and culture Includes rare early illustrations

Argument and Design: The Unity of the Mahābhārata

Author :
Publisher : BRILL
ISBN 13 : 9004311408
Total Pages : 494 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (43 download)

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Book Synopsis Argument and Design: The Unity of the Mahābhārata by :

Download or read book Argument and Design: The Unity of the Mahābhārata written by and published by BRILL. This book was released on 2016-05-23 with total page 494 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Argument and Design features fifteen essays by leading scholars of the Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa, discussing the Mahābhārata’s upākhyānas, subtales that branch off from the central storyline and provide vantage points for reflecting on it. Contributors include: Vishwa Adluri, Joydeep Bagchee, Greg Bailey, Adam Bowles, Simon Brodbeck, Nicolas Dejenne, Sally J. Sutherland Goldman, Robert P. Goldman, Alf Hiltebeitel, Thennilapuram Mahadevan, Adheesh Sathaye, Bruce M. Sullivan, and Fernando Wulff Alonso.

Indira Goswami

Author : Namrata Pathak
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1000600297
Total Pages : 296 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (6 download)

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Book Synopsis Indira Goswami by : Namrata Pathak

Download or read book Indira Goswami written by Namrata Pathak and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2022-06-23 with total page 296 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book engages with the life and works of Indira Goswami, the first Assamese woman writer to win the highest national literary award, the Jnanpith Award, in 2001. From sociological treatises to a springboard of a socio-political milieu, Goswami’s texts are intersections of the local and the global, the popular and the canonical. The writer’s penchant for transcending boundaries gives a new contour and shape to the social and cultural domains in her texts. That every character is a representative of the society, that the context comes alive in every evocation of class struggle, power play, caste discrimination and gendered narratives add an interesting semantic load to her texts. While tracing the trajectories discussed above, this book foregrounds Goswami’s act of going beyond the margins of varied kinds, both abstract and concrete, in search of egalitarian and democratic spaces of life. The book looks at Indira Goswami’s works with a special emphasis on the author situated within the Assamese literary canon. It not only discusses the themes and issues within her writing, but also focuses on the distinct language and style she uses. The volume includes non-fictional prose, excerpts from her short stories and novels, viewpoints of critics, letters and entries from diaries, as well as interviews with Goswami about her writing and personal life. It engages with her works in the context of her multifaceted, almost mythical life, especially her avowed ‘activism’ against animal sacrifice and militancy in her latter career. Part of the Writer in Context series, this book will be useful for scholars and researchers of Indian literature, Assamese literature, English literature, postcolonial studies, cultural studies, global south studies, gender studies and translation studies.

Text and Tradition in South India

Author : Velcheru Narayana Rao
Publisher : SUNY Press
ISBN 13 : 1438467753
Total Pages : 508 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (384 download)

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Book Synopsis Text and Tradition in South India by : Velcheru Narayana Rao

Download or read book Text and Tradition in South India written by Velcheru Narayana Rao and published by SUNY Press. This book was released on 2017-06-01 with total page 508 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Essays on Telugu and South Indian literature and culture by distinguished Telugu scholar Narayana Rao. Velcheru Narayana Raos contribution to understanding Indian cultural history, literary production, and intellectual lifespecifically from the vantage of the Andhra regionhas few parallels. He is one of the very rare scholars to be able to reflect magisterially on the precolonial and colonial periods. He moves easily between Sanskrit and the vernacular traditions, and between the worlds of orality and script. This is because of his mastery of the classical Telugu tradition. As Sanjay Subrahmanyam puts it in his Introduction, To command nearly a thousand years of a literary tradition is no small feat, but more important still is VNRs ability constantly to offer fresh readings and provocative frameworks for interpretation. The essays and reflections in Text and Tradition in South India bring together the diverse and foundational contributions made by Narayana Rao to the rewriting of Indias cultural and literary history. The book is for anyone interested in the history of Indian ideas, the social and cultural history of South India, and the massive intellectual traditions of the subcontinent.