Nisei Radicals

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Publisher : University of Washington Press
ISBN 13 : 0295748273
Total Pages : 274 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (957 download)

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Book Synopsis Nisei Radicals by : Diane C. Fujino

Download or read book Nisei Radicals written by Diane C. Fujino and published by University of Washington Press. This book was released on 2020-12-31 with total page 274 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Demanding liberation, advocating for the oppressed, and organizing for justice, siblings Mitsuye Yamada (1923–) and Michael Yasutake (1920–2001) rebelled against respectability and assimilation, charting their own paths for what it means to be Nisei. Raised in Seattle and then forcibly removed and detained in the Minidoka concentration camp, their early lives mirrored those of many second-generation Japanese Americans. Yasutake’s pacifism endured even with immense pressure to enlist during his confinement and in the years following World War II. His faith-based activism guided him in condemning imperialism and inequality, and he worked tirelessly to free political prisoners and defend human rights. Yamada became an internationally acclaimed feminist poet, professor, and activist who continues to speak out against racism and patriarchy. Weaving together the stories of two distinct but intrinsically connected political lives, Nisei Radicals examines the siblings’ half century of dedication to global movements, including multicultural feminism, Puerto Rican independence, Japanese American redress, Indigenous sovereignty, and more. From displacement and invisibility to insurgent mobilization, Yamada and Yasutake rejected stereotypes and fought to dismantle systems of injustice.

Nisei Radicals

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9780295748252
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (482 download)

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Book Synopsis Nisei Radicals by : Diane Carol Fujino

Download or read book Nisei Radicals written by Diane Carol Fujino and published by . This book was released on 2020 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Demanding liberation, advocating for the oppressed, and organizing for justice, siblings Mitsuye Yamada (1923?) and Michael Yasutake (1920?2001) rebelled against respectability and assimilation, charting their own paths for what it means to be Nisei. Raised in Seattle and then forcibly removed and detained in the Minidoka concentration camp, their early lives mirrored those of many second-generation Japanese Americans. Yasutake?s pacifism endured even with immense pressure to enlist during his confinement and in the years following World War II. His faith-based activism guided him in condemning imperialism and inequality, and he worked tirelessly to free political prisoners and defend human rights. Yamada became an internationally acclaimed feminist poet, professor, and activist who continues to speak out against racism and patriarchy. Weaving together the stories of two distinct but intrinsically connected political lives, Nisei Radicals examines the siblings? half century of dedication to global movements, including multicultural feminism, Puerto Rican independence, Japanese American redress, Indigenous sovereignty, and more. From displacement and invisibility to insurgent mobilization, Yamada and Yasutake rejected stereotypes and fought to dismantle systems of injustice.

Asian Americans [3 volumes]

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Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing USA
ISBN 13 : 1598842404
Total Pages : 1540 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (988 download)

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Book Synopsis Asian Americans [3 volumes] by : Xiaojian Zhao

Download or read book Asian Americans [3 volumes] written by Xiaojian Zhao and published by Bloomsbury Publishing USA. This book was released on 2013-11-26 with total page 1540 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This is the most comprehensive and up-to-date reference work on Asian Americans, comprising three volumes that address a broad range of topics on various Asian and Pacific Islander American groups from 1848 to the present day. This three-volume work represents a leading reference resource for Asian American studies that gives students, researchers, librarians, teachers, and other interested readers the ability to easily locate accurate, up-to-date information about Asian ethnic groups, historical and contemporary events, important policies, and notable individuals. Written by leading scholars in their fields of expertise and authorities in diverse professions, the entries devote attention to diverse Asian and Pacific Islander American groups as well as the roles of women, distinct socioeconomic classes, Asian American political and social movements, and race relations involving Asian Americans.

Jim and Jap Crow

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Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 0691161933
Total Pages : 305 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (911 download)

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Book Synopsis Jim and Jap Crow by : Matthew M. Briones

Download or read book Jim and Jap Crow written by Matthew M. Briones and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2013-12-26 with total page 305 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Following Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the U.S. government rounded up more than one hundred thousand Japanese Americans and sent them to internment camps. One of those internees was Charles Kikuchi. In thousands of diary pages, he documented his experiences in the camps, his resettlement in Chicago and drafting into the Army on the eve of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and his postwar life as a social worker in New York City. Kikuchi's diaries bear witness to a watershed era in American race relations, and expose both the promise and the hypocrisy of American democracy. Jim and Jap Crow follows Kikuchi's personal odyssey among fellow Japanese American intellectuals, immigrant activists, Chicago School social scientists, everyday people on Chicago's South Side, and psychologically scarred veterans in the hospitals of New York. The book chronicles a remarkable moment in America's history in which interracial alliances challenged the limits of the elusive democratic ideal, and in which the nation was forced to choose between civil liberty and the fearful politics of racial hysteria. It was an era of world war and the atomic bomb, desegregation in the military but Jim and Jap Crow elsewhere in America, and a hopeful progressivism that gave way to Cold War paranoia. Jim and Jap Crow looks at Kikuchi's life and diaries as a lens through which to observe the possibilities, failures, and key conversations in a dynamic multiracial America.

The Kikuchi Diary

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Publisher : University of Illinois Press
ISBN 13 : 9780252062834
Total Pages : 276 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (628 download)

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Book Synopsis The Kikuchi Diary by : Charles Kikuchi

Download or read book The Kikuchi Diary written by Charles Kikuchi and published by University of Illinois Press. This book was released on 1973 with total page 276 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: ''How can we fight fascism,'' wrote Charles Kikuchi in June, 1942, ''if we allow its doctrines to become part of government policies?'' Kikuchi was one of the American-born majority of more than 100,000 Japanese Americans who were moved from Pacific Coast states to government relocation centers in 1942 out of declared ''military necessity.'' Presented here is the absorbing diary Kikuchi kept from December 7, 1941, to September, 1942, shortly before and during the time he and his family were forced to live in a converted horse stall at Tanforan Race Track. Kikuchi was a twenty-six-year-old graduate student in social welfare at the University of California when war broke out, and his wry observations provide an alternative to both the official view of relocation and the uninformed outrage of many of its present-day critics.''For anyone interested in the significance of ethnicity, the role of social marginality, and the insidiousness of racialism in American history, The Kikuchi Diary is indispensable reading.''--History: Review of New Books ''A powerful human document. . . . Kikuchi is an extraordinary person. He is also a gifted diarist.''--Choice

Contemporary Asian American Activism

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Publisher : University of Washington Press
ISBN 13 : 0295749814
Total Pages : 338 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (957 download)

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Book Synopsis Contemporary Asian American Activism by : Diane C. Fujino

Download or read book Contemporary Asian American Activism written by Diane C. Fujino and published by University of Washington Press. This book was released on 2022-01-28 with total page 338 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the struggles for prison abolition, global anti-imperialism, immigrant rights, affordable housing, environmental justice, fair labor, and more, twenty-first-century Asian American activists are speaking out and standing up to systems of oppression. Creating emancipatory futures requires collective action and reciprocal relationships that are nurtured over time and forged through cross-racial solidarity and intergenerational connections, leading to a range of on-the-ground experiences. Bringing together grassroots organizers and scholar-activists, Contemporary Asian American Activism presents lived experiences of the fight for transformative justice and offers lessons to ensure the longevity and sustainability of organizing. In the face of imperialism, white supremacy, racial capitalism, heteropatriarchy, ableism, and more, the contributors celebrate victories and assess failures, reflect on the trials of activist life, critically examine long-term movement building, and inspire continued mobilization for coming generations.

Nisei/Sansei

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Publisher : Temple University Press
ISBN 13 : 9781566396592
Total Pages : 300 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (965 download)

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Book Synopsis Nisei/Sansei by : Jere Takahashi

Download or read book Nisei/Sansei written by Jere Takahashi and published by Temple University Press. This book was released on 1998-06 with total page 300 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: To talk about "political style" is to acknowledge a dynamic and somewhat improvisational approach to politics; it is to acknowledge the need to work within the limits presented by tradition, resources, and social context. To speak of "political style" in relation to a particular ethnic group is to recognize their agency in shaping their history.In Nisei/Sansei: Shifting Japanese American Identities and Politics, Jere Takahashi challenges studies that describe the Japanese American community's essentially linear process toward assimilation into U.S. society. As he develops a complex and nuanced account of Japanese American life, he shows that a diversity of opinion and debate about effective political strategy characterized each generation of Japanese Americans. As he investigates the ways in which each generation attempted to advance its interests and concerns, he uncovers the struggles over key issues and introduces the community activists whose voices have been muffled by assimilation narratives.Takahashi's approach to political style includes the ways that Japanese Americans mustered and managed political resources, but also encompasses their on-going efforts at self-definition. His focus, then, is on personal and social action; on individual activists, power, and ideological shifts within the community, and generational change. In telling the story of the community's complex and dynamic relationship to the larger society, he highlights individuals who contributed to the struggles and debates that paved the way for the emergence of a distinct Japanese American identity. Author note: Jere Takahashi teaches Asian American Studies at the University of California, Berkeley.

The Internment of Japanese Americans in United States History

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Publisher : Enslow Publishing, LLC
ISBN 13 : 0766060683
Total Pages : 98 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (66 download)

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Book Synopsis The Internment of Japanese Americans in United States History by : David K. Fremon

Download or read book The Internment of Japanese Americans in United States History written by David K. Fremon and published by Enslow Publishing, LLC. This book was released on 2014-07-01 with total page 98 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The loyalty of Japanese Americans was questioned after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, simply because of their ancestry. Author David K. Fremon looks at the events behind this unfortunate episode from American history, highlighting the personal accounts of many Japanese Americans who were forced to live through this difficult time. The effects of this internment are still emerging, but the United States today recognizes that injustices were inflicted on thousands of Japanese Americans.

Third Worlds Within

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Publisher : Duke University Press
ISBN 13 : 147805915X
Total Pages : 283 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (78 download)

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Book Synopsis Third Worlds Within by : Daniel Widener

Download or read book Third Worlds Within written by Daniel Widener and published by Duke University Press. This book was released on 2024-03-08 with total page 283 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In Third Worlds Within, Daniel Widener expands conceptions of the struggle for racial justice by reframing antiracist movements in the United States in a broader internationalist context. For Widener, antiracist struggles at home are connected to and profoundly shaped by similar struggles abroad. Drawing from an expansive historical archive and his own activist and family history, Widener explores the links between local and global struggles throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. He uncovers what connects seemingly disparate groups like Japanese American and Black communities in Southern California or American folk musicians and revolutionary movements in Asia. He also centers the expansive vision of global Indigenous movements, the challenges of Black/Brown solidarity, and the influence of East Asian organizing on the US Third World Left. In the process, Widener reveals how the fight against racism unfolds both locally and globally and creates new forms of solidarity. Highlighting the key strategic role played by US communities of color in efforts to defeat the conjoined forces of capitalism, racism, and imperialism, Widener produces a new understanding of history that informs contemporary social struggle.

Trans-Pacific Japanese American Studies

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Publisher : University of Hawaii Press
ISBN 13 : 0824867629
Total Pages : 453 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (248 download)

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Book Synopsis Trans-Pacific Japanese American Studies by : Yasuko Takezawa

Download or read book Trans-Pacific Japanese American Studies written by Yasuko Takezawa and published by University of Hawaii Press. This book was released on 2016-09-30 with total page 453 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Trans-Pacific Japanese American Studies is a unique collection of essays derived from a series of dialogues held in Tokyo, Kyoto, and Los Angeles on the issues of racializations, gender, communities, and the positionalities of scholars involved in Japanese American studies. The book brings together some of the most renowned scholars of the discipline in Japan and North America. It seeks to overcome past constraints of dialogues between Japan- and U.S.-based scholars by providing opportunities for candid, extended conversations among its contributors. While each contribution focuses on the field of “Japanese American” studies, approaches to the subject vary—ranging from national and village archives, community newspapers, personal letters, visual art, and personal interviews. Research papers are divided into six sections: Racializations, Communities, Intersections, Borderlands, Reorientations, and Teaching. Papers by one or two Japan-based scholar(s) are paired with a U.S.-based scholar, reflecting the book’s intention to promote dialogue and mutuality across national formations. The collection is also notable for featuring underrepresented communities in Japanese American studies, such as Okinawan “war brides,” Koreans, women, and multiracials. Essays on subject positions raise fundamental questions: Is it possible to engage in a truly equal dialogue when English is the language used in the conversation and in a field where English-language texts predominate? How can scholars foster a mutual respect when U.S.-centrism prevails in the subject matter and in the field’s scholarly hierarchy? Understanding foundational questions that are now frequently unstated assumptions will help to disrupt hierarchies in scholarship and work toward more equal engagements across national divides. Although the study of Japanese Americans has reached a stage of maturity, contributors to this volume recognize important historical and contemporary neglects in that historiography and literature. Japanese America and its scholarly representations, they declare, are much too deep, rich, and varied to contain in a singular narrative or subject position.

Japanese American Celebration and Conflict

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Publisher : Univ of California Press
ISBN 13 : 9780520926479
Total Pages : 298 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (264 download)

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Book Synopsis Japanese American Celebration and Conflict by : Lon Kurashige

Download or read book Japanese American Celebration and Conflict written by Lon Kurashige and published by Univ of California Press. This book was released on 2002-06-03 with total page 298 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Do racial minorities in the United States assimilate to American values and institutions, or do they retain ethnic ties and cultures? In exploring the Japanese American experience, Lon Kurashige recasts this tangled debate by examining what assimilation and ethnic retention have meant to a particular community over a long period of time. This is an inner history, in which the group identity of one of America's most noteworthy racial minorities takes shape. From the 1930s, when Japanese immigrants controlled sizable ethnic enclaves, to the tragic wartime internment and postwar decades punctuated by dramatic class mobility, racial protest, and the influx of economic investment from Japan, the story is fraught with conflict. The narrative centers on Nisei Week in Los Angeles, the largest annual Japanese celebration in the United States. The celebration is a critical site of political conflict, and the ways it has changed over the years reflect the ongoing competition over what it has meant to be Japanese American. Kurashige reveals, subtly and with attention to gender issues, the tensions that emerged at different moments, not only between those who emphasized Japanese ethnicity and those who stressed American orientation, but also between generations and classes in this complex community.

The Shifting Grounds of Race

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Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 1400834007
Total Pages : 352 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (8 download)

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Book Synopsis The Shifting Grounds of Race by : Scott Kurashige

Download or read book The Shifting Grounds of Race written by Scott Kurashige and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2010-03-15 with total page 352 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Los Angeles has attracted intense attention as a "world city" characterized by multiculturalism and globalization. Yet, little is known about the historical transformation of a place whose leaders proudly proclaimed themselves white supremacists less than a century ago. In The Shifting Grounds of Race, Scott Kurashige highlights the role African Americans and Japanese Americans played in the social and political struggles that remade twentieth-century Los Angeles. Linking paradigmatic events like Japanese American internment and the Black civil rights movement, Kurashige transcends the usual "black/white" dichotomy to explore the multiethnic dimensions of segregation and integration. Racism and sprawl shaped the dominant image of Los Angeles as a "white city." But they simultaneously fostered a shared oppositional consciousness among Black and Japanese Americans living as neighbors within diverse urban communities. Kurashige demonstrates why African Americans and Japanese Americans joined forces in the battle against discrimination and why the trajectories of the two groups diverged. Connecting local developments to national and international concerns, he reveals how critical shifts in postwar politics were shaped by a multiracial discourse that promoted the acceptance of Japanese Americans as a "model minority" while binding African Americans to the social ills underlying the 1965 Watts Rebellion. Multicultural Los Angeles ultimately encompassed both the new prosperity arising from transpacific commerce and the enduring problem of race and class divisions. This extraordinarily ambitious book adds new depth and complexity to our understanding of the "urban crisis" and offers a window into America's multiethnic future.

The New Black History

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Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 0230338046
Total Pages : 322 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (33 download)

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Book Synopsis The New Black History by : E. Hinton

Download or read book The New Black History written by E. Hinton and published by Springer. This book was released on 2016-04-30 with total page 322 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The New Black History anthology presents cutting-edge scholarship on key issues that define African American politics, life, and culture, especially during the Civil Rights and Black Power eras. The volume includes articles by both established scholars and a rising generation of young scholars.

Going for Broke

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Publisher : University of Oklahoma Press
ISBN 13 : 0806189088
Total Pages : 478 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (61 download)

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Book Synopsis Going for Broke by : James M. McCaffrey

Download or read book Going for Broke written by James M. McCaffrey and published by University of Oklahoma Press. This book was released on 2013-04-30 with total page 478 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: When Japanese forces attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Americans reacted with revulsion and horror. In the patriotic war fever that followed, thousands of volunteers—including Japanese Americans—rushed to military recruitment centers. Except for those in the Hawaii National Guard, who made up the 100th Infantry Battalion, the U.S. Army initially turned Japanese American prospects away. Then, as a result of anti-Japanese fearmongering on the West Coast, more than 100,000 Americans of Japanese descent were sent to confinement in inland “relocation centers.” Most were natural-born citizens, their only “crime” their ethnicity. After the army eventually decided it would admit the second-generation Japanese American (Nisei) volunteers, it complemented the 100th Infantry Battalion by creating the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. This mostly Japanese American unit consisted of soldiers drafted before Pearl Harbor, volunteers from Hawaii, and even recruits from the relocation centers. In Going for Broke, historian James M. McCaffrey traces these men’s experiences in World War II, from training to some of the deadliest combat in Europe. Weaving together the voices of numerous soldiers, McCaffrey tells of the men’s frustrations and achievements on the U.S. mainland and abroad. Training in Mississippi, the recruits from Hawaii and the mainland have their first encounter with southern-style black-white segregation. Once in action, they helped push the Germans out of Italy and France. The 442nd would go on to become one of the most highly decorated units in the U.S. Army. McCaffrey’s account makes clear that like other American soldiers in World War II, the Nisei relied on their personal determination, social values, and training to “go for broke”—to bet everything, even their lives. Ultimately, their bravery and patriotism in the face of prejudice advanced racial harmony and opportunities for Japanese Americans after the war.

Afro Asia

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Publisher : Duke University Press
ISBN 13 : 0822381176
Total Pages : 414 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (223 download)

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Book Synopsis Afro Asia by : Fred Ho

Download or read book Afro Asia written by Fred Ho and published by Duke University Press. This book was released on 2008-06-04 with total page 414 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With contributions from activists, artists, and scholars, Afro Asia is a groundbreaking collection of writing on the historical alliances, cultural connections, and shared political strategies linking African Americans and Asian Americans. Bringing together autobiography, poetry, scholarly criticism, and other genres, this volume represents an activist vanguard in the cultural struggle against oppression. Afro Asia opens with analyses of historical connections between people of African and of Asian descent. An account of nineteenth-century Chinese laborers who fought against slavery and colonialism in Cuba appears alongside an exploration of African Americans’ reactions to and experiences of the Korean “conflict.” Contributors examine the fertile period of Afro-Asian exchange that began around the time of the 1955 Bandung Conference, the first meeting of leaders from Asian and African nations in the postcolonial era. One assesses the relationship of two important 1960s Asian American activists to Malcolm X and the Black Panthers. Mao Ze Dong’s 1963 and 1968 statements in support of black liberation are juxtaposed with an overview of the influence of Maoism on African American leftists. Turning to the arts, Ishmael Reed provides a brief account of how he met and helped several Asian American writers. A Vietnamese American spoken-word artist describes the impact of black hip-hop culture on working-class urban Asian American youth. Fred Ho interviews Bill Cole, an African American jazz musician who plays Asian double-reed instruments. This pioneering collection closes with an array of creative writing, including poetry, memoir, and a dialogue about identity and friendship that two writers, one Japanese American and the other African American, have performed around the United States. Contributors: Betsy Esch, Diane C. Fujino, royal hartigan, Kim Hewitt, Cheryl Higashida, Fred Ho, Everett Hoagland, Robin D. G. Kelley, Bill V. Mullen, David Mura, Ishle Park, Alexs Pate, Thien-bao Thuc Phi, Ishmael Reed, Kalamu Ya Salaam, Maya Almachar Santos, JoYin C. Shih, Ron Wheeler, Daniel Widener, Lisa Yun

Race Struggles

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Publisher : University of Illinois Press
ISBN 13 : 0252076486
Total Pages : 354 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (52 download)

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Book Synopsis Race Struggles by : Theodore Koditschek

Download or read book Race Struggles written by Theodore Koditschek and published by University of Illinois Press. This book was released on 2009 with total page 354 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The essays in this collection start with the premise that although race, like class and gender, is socially constructed, all three categories have been shaped profoundly by their context in a capitalist society. Race, in other words, is a historical category that develops not only in dialectical relation to class and gender but also in relation to the material conditions in which all three are forged. In addition to discussing and analyzing various dimensions of the African American experience, contributors also consider the ways in which race plays itself out in the experience of Asian Americans and in the very different geopolitical environments of the British Empire and postcolonial Africa. Contributors are Pedro Caban, Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua, David Crockett, Theodore Koditschek, Scott Kurashige, Clarence Lang, Minkah Makalani, Helen A. Neville, Ibitola O. Pearce, David Roediger, Monica M. White, and Jeffrey Williams.

Chains of Babylon

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Publisher : U of Minnesota Press
ISBN 13 : 0816648905
Total Pages : 225 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (166 download)

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Book Synopsis Chains of Babylon by : Daryl J. Maeda

Download or read book Chains of Babylon written by Daryl J. Maeda and published by U of Minnesota Press. This book was released on 2009 with total page 225 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In Chains of Babylon, Daryl J. Maeda presents a cultural history of Asian American activism in the late 1960s and early 1970s, showing how the movement created the category of "Asian American" to join Asians of many ethnicities in racial solidarity. Drawing on the Black Power and antiwar movements, Asian American radicals argued that all Asians in the United States should resist assimilation and band together to oppose racism within the country and imperialism abroad. As revealed in Maeda's in-depth work, the Asian American movement contended that people of all Asian ethnicities in the United States shared a common relationship to oppression and exploitation with each other and with other nonwhite peoples. In the early stages of the civil rights era, the possibility of assimilation was held out to Asian Americans under a model minority myth. Maeda insists that it was only in the disruption of that myth for both African Americans and Asian Americans in the 1960s and 1970s that the full Asian American culture and movement he describes could emerge. Maeda challenges accounts of the post-1968 era as hopelessly divisive by examining how racial and cultural identity enabled Asian Americans to see eye-to-eye with and support other groups of color in their campaigns for social justice. Asian American opposition to the war in Vietnam, unlike that of the broader antiwar movement, was predicated on understanding it as a racial, specifically anti-Asian genocide. Throughout he argues that cultural critiques of racism and imperialism, the twin "chains of Babylon" of the title, informed the construction of a multiethnic Asian American identity committed to interracial and transnational solidarity.