Moses, Jesus, and the Trickster in the Evangelical South

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Publisher : University of Georgia Press
ISBN 13 : 082034592X
Total Pages : 199 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Moses, Jesus, and the Trickster in the Evangelical South by : Paul Harvey

Download or read book Moses, Jesus, and the Trickster in the Evangelical South written by Paul Harvey and published by University of Georgia Press. This book was released on 2012-03-01 with total page 199 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Paul Harvey uses four characters that are important symbols of religious expression in the American South to survey major themes of religion, race, and southern history. The figure of Moses helps us better understand how whites saw themselves as a chosen people in situations of suffering and war and how Africans and African Americans reworked certain stories in the Bible to suit their own purposes. By applying the figure of Jesus to the central concerns of life, Harvey argues, southern evangelicals were instrumental in turning him into an American figure. The ghostly presence of the Trickster, hovering at the edges of the sacred world, sheds light on the Euro-American and African American folk religions that existed alongside Christianity. Finally, Harvey explores twentieth-century renderings of the biblical story of Absalom in William Faulkner's Absalom, Absalom and in works from Toni Morrison and Edward P. Jones. Harvey uses not only biblical and religious sources but also draws on literature, mythology, and art. He ponders the troubling meaning of "religious freedom" for slaves and later for blacks in the segregated South. Through his cast of four central characters, Harvey reveals diverse facets of the southern religious experience, including conceptions of ambiguity, darkness, evil, and death.

Moses, Jesus, and the Trickster in the Evangelical South

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Author :
Publisher : University of Georgia Press
ISBN 13 : 0820343749
Total Pages : 198 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Moses, Jesus, and the Trickster in the Evangelical South by : Paul Harvey

Download or read book Moses, Jesus, and the Trickster in the Evangelical South written by Paul Harvey and published by University of Georgia Press. This book was released on 2012-03-01 with total page 198 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Paul Harvey uses four characters that are important symbols of religious expression in the American South to survey major themes of religion, race, and southern history. The figure of Moses helps us better understand how whites saw themselves as a chosen people in situations of suffering and war and how Africans and African Americans reworked certain stories in the Bible to suit their own purposes. By applying the figure of Jesus to the central concerns of life, Harvey argues, southern evangelicals were instrumental in turning him into an American figure. The ghostly presence of the Trickster, hovering at the edges of the sacred world, sheds light on the Euro-American and African American folk religions that existed alongside Christianity. Finally, Harvey explores twentieth-century renderings of the biblical story of Absalom in William Faulkner’s Absalom, Absalom and in works from Toni Morrison and Edward P. Jones. Harvey uses not only biblical and religious sources but also draws on literature, mythology, and art. He ponders the troubling meaning of “religious freedom” for slaves and later for blacks in the segregated South. Through his cast of four central characters, Harvey reveals diverse facets of the southern religious experience, including conceptions of ambiguity, darkness, evil, and death.

The Cross of Christ in African American Christian Religious Experience

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Publisher : Lexington Books
ISBN 13 : 1793640491
Total Pages : 379 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (936 download)

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Book Synopsis The Cross of Christ in African American Christian Religious Experience by : Demetrius K. Williams

Download or read book The Cross of Christ in African American Christian Religious Experience written by Demetrius K. Williams and published by Lexington Books. This book was released on 2023-10-03 with total page 379 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In The Cross of Christ in African American Christian Religious Experience: Piety, Politics, and Protest Demetrius K. Williams examines and explores the ideational importance and rhetorical function of cross language and terminology in the spirituals, conversion narratives, and Black preaching tradition through an ideological lens.

Navigating Souths

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Publisher : University of Georgia Press
ISBN 13 : 0820351083
Total Pages : 328 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Navigating Souths by : Michele Grigsby Coffey

Download or read book Navigating Souths written by Michele Grigsby Coffey and published by University of Georgia Press. This book was released on 2017-08-01 with total page 328 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The work of considering, imagining, and theorizing the U.S. South in regional, national, and global contexts is an intellectual project that has been going on for some time. Scholars in history, literature, and other disciplines have developed an advanced understanding of the historical, social, and cultural forces that have helped to shape the U.S. South. However, most of the debates on these subjects have taken place within specific academic disciplines, with few attempts to cross-engage. Navigating Souths broadens these exchanges by facilitating transdisciplinary conversations about southern studies scholarship. The fourteen original essays in Navigating Souths articulate questions about the significances of the South as a theoretical and literal “home” base for social science and humanities researchers. They also examine challenges faced by researchers who identify as southern studies scholars, as well as by those who live and work in the regional South, and show how researchers have responded to these challenges. In doing so, this book project seeks to reframe the field of southern studies as it is currently being practiced by social science and humanities scholars and thus reshape historical and cultural conceptualizations of the region.

Christianity and Race in the American South

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Publisher : University of Chicago Press
ISBN 13 : 022641549X
Total Pages : 269 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (264 download)

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Book Synopsis Christianity and Race in the American South by : Paul Harvey

Download or read book Christianity and Race in the American South written by Paul Harvey and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2016-11-21 with total page 269 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The history of race and religion in the American South is infused with tragedy, survival, and water—from St. Augustine on the shores of Florida’s Atlantic Coast to the swampy mire of Jamestown to the floodwaters that nearly destroyed New Orleans. Determination, resistance, survival, even transcendence, shape the story of race and southern Christianities. In Christianity and Race in the American South, Paul Harvey gives us a narrative history of the South as it integrates into the story of religious history, fundamentally transforming our understanding of the importance of American Christianity and religious identity. Harvey chronicles the diversity and complexity in the intertwined histories of race and religion in the South, dating back to the first days of European settlement. He presents a history rife with strange alliances, unlikely parallels, and far too many tragedies, along the way illustrating that ideas about the role of churches in the South were critically shaped by conflicts over slavery and race that defined southern life more broadly. Race, violence, religion, and southern identity remain a volatile brew, and this book is the persuasive historical examination that is essential to making sense of it.

Spirituals

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Publisher : A-R Editions, Inc.
ISBN 13 : 0895797992
Total Pages : 317 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (957 download)

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Book Synopsis Spirituals by : Kathleen A. Abromeit

Download or read book Spirituals written by Kathleen A. Abromeit and published by A-R Editions, Inc.. This book was released on 2015-01-01 with total page 317 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Spirituals originated among enslaved Africans in America during the colonial era. They resonate throughout African American history from that time to the civil rights movement, from the cotton fields to the concert stage, and influenced everything from gospel music to blues and rap. They have offered solace in times of suffering, served as clandestine signals on the Underground Railroad, and been a source of celebration and religious inspiration. Spirituals are born from the womb of African American experience, yet they transcend national, disciplinary, and linguistic boundaries as they connect music, theology, literature and poetry, history, society, and education. In doing so, they reach every aspect of human experience. To make sense of the immense impact spirituals have made on music, culture, and society, this bibliography cites writings from a multidisciplinary perspective. This annotated bibliography documents articles, books, and dissertations published since 1902. Of those, 150 are books; 80 are chapters within books; 615 are journal articles, and 150 are dissertations, along with a selection of highly significant items published before 1920. The most recent publications included date from early 2014. Disciplines researched include music, literature and poetry, American history, religion, and African American Studies. Items included in the annotated bibliography are limited to English-language sources that were published in the United States and focus on African American spirituals in the United States, but there are a few select citations that focus on spirituals outside of the United States. Of the one thousand annotations, they are divided, roughly evenly, between: general studies and geographical studies; information about early spirituals; use of spirituals in art music, church music, and popular music; composers who based music on spirituals; performers of spirituals (ensembles and individuals); Bible, theology, and religious education; literature and poetry; pedagogical considerations, including the teaching of spirituals as well as prominent educators; reference works and a list of resources that were unavailable for review but are potentially useful. This book also offers considerable depth on particular topics such as the Fisk Jubilee Singers and William Grant Still with over thirty citations devoted to each. At the same time, materials included are quite diverse, with topics such as spirituals in Zora Neale Hurston’s novels; bible studies based on spirituals; enriching the teaching of geography through spirituals; Marian Anderson’s historic concert at the Lincoln Memorial; spiritual roots of rap; teaching dialect to singers; expressing African American religion in spirituals; Samuel Coleridge-Taylor’s music; slave tradition of singing among the Gullah. The book contains indices by author, subject, and spiritual title. Additionally, an appendix of spirituals by biblical reference, listing both spiritual title to scriptural reference as well as scripture to spiritual title is included. T. L. Collins, Christian educator, compiled the appendix.

The Bible in American Law and Politics

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Author :
Publisher : Rowman & Littlefield
ISBN 13 : 1538141671
Total Pages : 679 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (381 download)

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Book Synopsis The Bible in American Law and Politics by : John R. Vile

Download or read book The Bible in American Law and Politics written by John R. Vile and published by Rowman & Littlefield. This book was released on 2020-09-19 with total page 679 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: While scholars increasingly recognize the importance of religion throughout American history, The Bible in American Law and Politics is the first reference book to focus on the key role that the Bible has played in American public life. In considering revolting from Great Britain, Americans contemplated whether this was consistent with scripture. Americans subsequently sought to apply Biblical passages to such issues as slavery, women’s rights, national alcoholic prohibition, issues of war and peace, and the like. American presidents continue to take their oath on the Bible. Some of America’s greatest speeches, for example, Lincoln’s Second Inaugural and William Jennings Bryan’s Cross of Gold speech, have been grounded on Biblical texts or analogies. Today, Americans continue to cite the Bible for positions as diverse as LGBTQ rights, abortion, immigration, welfare, health care, and other contemporary issues. By providing essays on key speeches, books, documents, legal decisions, and other writings throughout American history that have sought to buttress arguments through citations to Scriptures or to Biblical figures, John Vile provides an indispensable guide for scholars and students in religion, American history, law, and political science to understand how Americans throughout its history have interpreted and applied the Bible to legal and political issues.

The Secular Spectacle

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Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0199860297
Total Pages : 253 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (998 download)

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Book Synopsis The Secular Spectacle by : Chad E. Seales

Download or read book The Secular Spectacle written by Chad E. Seales and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2013-11-13 with total page 253 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Tracing the religious history of Siler City, North Carolina, Chad E. Seales argues that southern whites cultivated their own regional brand of American secularism and employed it, alongside public religious performances, to claim and regulate public spaces. Over the course of the twentieth century, they wielded secularism to segregate racialized bodies, to challenge local changes resulting from civil rights legislation, and to respond to the arrival of Latino migrants. Combining ethnographic and archival sources, Seales studies the themes of industrialization, nationalism, civility, privatization, and migration through the local history of Siler City; its neighborhood patterns, Fourth of July parades, Confederate soldiers, minstrel shows, mock weddings, banking practices, police shootings, Good Friday processions, public protests, and downtown mural displays. Offering a spatial approach to the study of performative religion, The Secular Spectacle presents a generative narrative of secularism from the perspective of evangelical Protestants in the American South.

Southern Religion, Southern Culture

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Publisher : Univ. Press of Mississippi
ISBN 13 : 1496820509
Total Pages : 163 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (968 download)

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Book Synopsis Southern Religion, Southern Culture by : Darren E. Grem

Download or read book Southern Religion, Southern Culture written by Darren E. Grem and published by Univ. Press of Mississippi. This book was released on 2018-12-18 with total page 163 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Contributions by Ryan L. Fletcher, Darren E. Grem, Paul Harvey, Alicia Jackson, Ted Ownby, Otis W. Pickett, Arthur Remillard, Chad Seales, and Randall J. Stephens Over more than three decades of teaching at the University of Mississippi, Charles Reagan Wilson’s research and writing transformed southern studies in key ways. This volume pays tribute to and extends Wilson’s seminal work on southern religion and culture. Using certain episodes and moments in southern religious history, the essays examine the place and power of religion in southern communities and society. It emulates Wilson’s model, featuring both majority and minority voices from archives and applying a variety of methods to explain the South’s religious diversity and how religion mattered in many arenas of private and public life, often with life-or-death stakes. The volume first concentrates on churches and ministers, and then considers religious and cultural constructions outside formal religious bodies and institutions. It examines the faiths expressed via the region’s fields, streets, homes, public squares, recreational venues, roadsides, and stages. In doing so, this book shows that Wilson’s groundbreaking work on religion is an essential part of southern studies and crucial for fostering deeper understanding of the South’s complicated history and culture.

Dancing on the Color Line

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Publisher : Univ. Press of Mississippi
ISBN 13 : 149680418X
Total Pages : 208 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (968 download)

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Book Synopsis Dancing on the Color Line by : Gretchen Martin

Download or read book Dancing on the Color Line written by Gretchen Martin and published by Univ. Press of Mississippi. This book was released on 2015-12-09 with total page 208 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The extensive influence of the creative traditions derived from slave culture, particularly black folklore, in the work of nineteenth- and twentieth-century black authors, such as Ralph Ellison and Toni Morrison, has become a hallmark of African American scholarship. Yet similar inquiries regarding white authors adopting black aesthetic techniques have been largely overlooked. Gretchen Martin examines representative nineteenth-century works to explore the influence of black-authored (or narrated) works on well-known white-authored texts, particularly the impact of black oral culture evident by subversive trickster figures in John Pendleton Kennedy's Swallow Barn, Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, Herman Melville's Benito Cereno, Joel Chandler Harris's short stories, as well as Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and Pudd'nhead Wilson. As Martin indicates, such white authors show themselves to be savvy observers of the many trickster traditions and indeed a wide range of texts suggest stylistic and aesthetic influences representative of the artistry, subversive wisdom, and subtle humor in these black figures of ridicule, resistance, and repudiation. The black characters created by these white authors are often dismissed as little more than limited, demeaning stereotypes of the minstrel tradition, yet by teasing out important distinctions between the wisdom and humor signified by trickery rather than minstrelsy, Martin probes an overlooked aspect of the nineteenth-century American literary canon and reveals the extensive influence of black aesthetics on some of the most highly regarded work by white American authors.

The Sacred Mirror

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Publisher : UNC Press Books
ISBN 13 : 1469627574
Total Pages : 238 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (696 download)

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Book Synopsis The Sacred Mirror by : Robert Elder

Download or read book The Sacred Mirror written by Robert Elder and published by UNC Press Books. This book was released on 2016-03-02 with total page 238 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Most histories of the American South describe the conflict between evangelical religion and honor culture as one of the defining features of southern life before the Civil War. The story is usually told as a battle of clashing worldviews, but in this book, Robert Elder challenges this interpretation by illuminating just how deeply evangelicalism in Methodist, Baptist, and Presbyterian churches was interwoven with traditional southern culture, arguing that evangelicals owed much of their success to their ability to appeal to people steeped in southern honor culture. Previous accounts of the rise of evangelicalism in the South have told this tale as a tragedy in which evangelicals eventually adopted many of the central tenets of southern society in order to win souls and garner influence. But through an examination of evangelical language and practices, Elder shows that evangelicals always shared honor's most basic assumptions. Making use of original sources such as diaries, correspondence, periodicals, and church records, Elder recasts the relationship between evangelicalism and secular honor in the South, proving the two concepts are connected in much deeper ways than have ever been previously understood.

Hard, Hard Religion

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Publisher : UNC Press Books
ISBN 13 : 146963533X
Total Pages : 251 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (696 download)

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Book Synopsis Hard, Hard Religion by : John Hayes

Download or read book Hard, Hard Religion written by John Hayes and published by UNC Press Books. This book was released on 2017-09-19 with total page 251 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In his captivating study of faith and class, John Hayes examines the ways folk religion in the early twentieth century allowed the South's poor--both white and black--to listen, borrow, and learn from each other about what it meant to live as Christians in a world of severe struggle. Beneath the well-documented religious forms of the New South, people caught in the region's poverty crafted a distinct folk Christianity that spoke from the margins of capitalist development, giving voice to modern phenomena like alienation and disenchantment. Through haunting songs of death, mystical tales of conversion, grassroots sacramental displays, and an ethic of neighborliness, impoverished folk Christians looked for the sacred in their midst and affirmed the value of this life in this world. From Tom Watson and W. E. B. Du Bois over a century ago to political commentators today, many have ruminated on how, despite material commonalities, the poor of the South have been perennially divided by racism. Through his excavation of a folk Christianity of the poor, which fused strands of African and European tradition into a new synthesis, John Hayes recovers a historically contingent moment of interracial exchange generated in hardship.

American Tricksters

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Publisher : Wipf and Stock Publishers
ISBN 13 : 1630877336
Total Pages : 275 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (38 download)

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Book Synopsis American Tricksters by : William J. Jackson

Download or read book American Tricksters written by William J. Jackson and published by Wipf and Stock Publishers. This book was released on 2014-12-18 with total page 275 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Tricksters are known by their deeds. Obviously not all the examples in American Tricksters are full-blown mythological tricksters like Coyote, Raven, or the Two Brothers found in Native American stories, or superhuman figures like the larger-than-life Davy Crockett of nineteenth-century tales. Newer expressions of trickiness do share some qualities with the Trickster archetype seen in myths. Rock stars who break taboos and get away with it, heroes who overcome monstrous circumstances, crafty folk who find a way to survive and thrive when the odds are against them, men making spectacles of themselves by feeding their astounding appetites in public--all have some trickster qualities. Each person, every living creature who ever faced an obstacle and needed to get around it, has found the built-in trickster impulse. Impasses turn the trickster gene on, or stimulate the trick-performing imagination--that's life. To explore the ways and means of trickster maneuvers can alert us to pitfalls, help us appreciate tricks that are entertaining, and aid us in fending off ploys which drain our resources and ruin our lives. Knowing more about the Trickster archetype in our psyches helps us be more self-aware.

Black Freedom, White Resistance, and Red Menace

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Publisher : LSU Press
ISBN 13 : 080715315X
Total Pages : 509 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (71 download)

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Book Synopsis Black Freedom, White Resistance, and Red Menace by : Yasuhiro Katagiri

Download or read book Black Freedom, White Resistance, and Red Menace written by Yasuhiro Katagiri and published by LSU Press. This book was released on 2014-01-06 with total page 509 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In Black Freedom, White Resistance, and Red Menace, Yasuhiro Katagiri offers the first scholarly work to illuminate an important but largely unstudied aspect of U.S. civil rights history -- the collaborative and mutually beneficial relationship between professional anti-Communists in the North and segregationist politicians in the South. In 1954, the Supreme Court outlawed racial segregation in public schools with the Brown v. Board of Education ruling. Soon after -- while the political demise of U.S. senator Joseph R. McCarthy unfolded -- northern anti-Communists looked to the South as a promising new territory in which they could expand their support base and continue their cause. Southern segregationists embraced the assistance, and the methods, of these Yankee collaborators, and utilized the "northern messiahs" in executing a massive resistance to the Supreme Court's desegregation decrees and the civil rights movement in general. Southern white leadership framed black southerners' crusades for social justice and human dignity as a foreign scheme directed by nefarious outside agitators, "race-mixers," and, worse, outright subversives and card-carrying Communists. Based on years of extensive archival research, Black Freedom, White Resistance, and Red Menace explains how a southern version of McCarthyism became part of the opposition to the civil rights movement in the South, an analysis that leads us to a deeper understanding and appreciation for what the freedom movement -- and those who struggled for equality -- fought to overcome.

The Color of Christ

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Publisher : UNC Press Books
ISBN 13 : 0807837377
Total Pages : 353 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (78 download)

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Book Synopsis The Color of Christ by : Edward J. Blum

Download or read book The Color of Christ written by Edward J. Blum and published by UNC Press Books. This book was released on 2012-09-21 with total page 353 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: How is it that in America the image of Jesus Christ has been used both to justify the atrocities of white supremacy and to inspire the righteousness of civil rights crusades? In The Color of Christ, Edward J. Blum and Paul Harvey weave a tapestry of American dreams and visions--from witch hunts to web pages, Harlem to Hollywood, slave cabins to South Park, Mormon revelations to Indian reservations--to show how Americans remade the Son of God visually time and again into a sacred symbol of their greatest aspirations, deepest terrors, and mightiest strivings for racial power and justice. The Color of Christ uncovers how, in a country founded by Puritans who destroyed depictions of Jesus, Americans came to believe in the whiteness of Christ. Some envisioned a white Christ who would sanctify the exploitation of Native Americans and African Americans and bless imperial expansion. Many others gazed at a messiah, not necessarily white, who was willing and able to confront white supremacy. The color of Christ still symbolizes America's most combustible divisions, revealing the power and malleability of race and religion from colonial times to the presidency of Barack Obama.

Yuletide in Dixie

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Publisher : University of Virginia Press
ISBN 13 : 0813942152
Total Pages : 389 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (139 download)

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Book Synopsis Yuletide in Dixie by : Robert E. May

Download or read book Yuletide in Dixie written by Robert E. May and published by University of Virginia Press. This book was released on 2019-10-15 with total page 389 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: How did enslaved African Americans in the Old South really experience Christmas? Did Christmastime provide slaves with a lengthy and jubilant respite from labor and the whip, as is generally assumed, or is the story far more complex and troubling? In this provocative, revisionist, and sometimes chilling account, Robert E. May chides the conventional wisdom for simplifying black perspectives, uncritically accepting southern white literary tropes about the holiday, and overlooking evidence not only that countless southern whites passed Christmases fearful that their slaves would revolt but also that slavery’s most punitive features persisted at holiday time. In Yuletide in Dixie, May uncovers a dark reality that not only alters our understanding of that history but also sheds new light on the breakdown of slavery in the Civil War and how false assumptions about slave Christmases afterward became harnessed to myths undergirding white supremacy in the United States. By exposing the underside of slave Christmases, May helps us better understand the problematic stereotypes of modern southern historical tourism and why disputes over Confederate memory retain such staying power today. A major reinterpretation of human bondage, Yuletide in Dixie challenges disturbing myths embedded deeply in our culture.

The Chance of Salvation

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Publisher : Harvard University Press
ISBN 13 : 0674983149
Total Pages : 385 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (749 download)

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Book Synopsis The Chance of Salvation by : Lincoln A. Mullen

Download or read book The Chance of Salvation written by Lincoln A. Mullen and published by Harvard University Press. This book was released on 2017-08-28 with total page 385 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The United States has a long history of religious pluralism, and yet Americans have often thought that people’s faith determines their eternal destinies. The result is that Americans switch religions more often than any other nation. The Chance of Salvation traces the history of the distinctively American idea that religion is a matter of individual choice. Lincoln Mullen shows how the willingness of Americans to change faiths, recorded in narratives that describe a wide variety of conversion experiences, created a shared assumption that religious identity is a decision. In the nineteenth century, as Americans confronted a growing array of religious options, pressures to convert altered the basis of American religion. Evangelical Protestants emphasized conversion as a personal choice, while Protestant missionaries brought Christianity to Native American nations such as the Cherokee, who adopted Christianity on their own terms. Enslaved and freed African Americans similarly created a distinctive form of Christian conversion based on ideas of divine justice and redemption. Mormons proselytized for a new tradition that stressed individual free will. American Jews largely resisted evangelism while at the same time winning converts to Judaism. Converts to Catholicism chose to opt out of the system of religious choice by turning to the authority of the Church. By the early twentieth century, religion in the United States was a system of competing options that created an obligation for more and more Americans to choose their own faith. Religion had changed from a family inheritance to a consciously adopted identity.