Managing In Emerging Market Economies

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The Oxford Handbook of Management in Emerging Markets

Author : Dr. Robert Grosse
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190683953
Total Pages : 889 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (96 download)

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Book Synopsis The Oxford Handbook of Management in Emerging Markets by : Dr. Robert Grosse

Download or read book The Oxford Handbook of Management in Emerging Markets written by Dr. Robert Grosse and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2019-01-08 with total page 889 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: For nearly two decades, emerging markets have been a primary source of growth in the world economy. They have become more international and compete more extensively with companies in developed countries. For these reasons, an understanding of managing businesses in emerging markets is a fundamental skill for competing in the twenty-first century. The Oxford Handbook of Management in Emerging Markets identifies key elements of the business systems and competition in emerging markets around the world, and then looks at competitive strategies of companies going into and coming out of these countries. While business is business, the handbook's focus is on how management differs depending on the different environmental characteristics in emerging markets, such as the role of the government, the potential weakness of infrastructure, and the skill and innovation bases available locally in emerging markets, among other elements. The volume is organized into five sections. The first section establishes conceptual perspectives for exploring the current business environment in emerging markets. The second section focuses on questions surrounding governance and markets. The third explores multinational enterprises (MNEs) in emerging economies, while the fourth section looks at local firms and emerging market MNEs. The fifth and final section looks at management in emerging markets within specific countries and regions around the world. This handbook is a vital resource for scholars, students, and managers looking to expand into emerging economies by providing comprehensive analyses of functional areas from human resources to finance to marketing, and on issues such as family businesses, state-owned enterprises, and the bottom of the pyramid.

Managing Currency Crises in Emerging Markets

Author : Michael P. Dooley
Publisher : University of Chicago Press
ISBN 13 : 0226155420
Total Pages : 456 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (261 download)

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Book Synopsis Managing Currency Crises in Emerging Markets by : Michael P. Dooley

Download or read book Managing Currency Crises in Emerging Markets written by Michael P. Dooley and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2007-11-01 with total page 456 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The management of financial crises in emerging markets is a vital and high-stakes challenge in an increasingly global economy. For this reason, it's also a highly contentious issue in today's public policy circles. In this book, leading economists-many of whom have also participated in policy debates on these issues-consider how best to reduce the frequency and cost of such crises. The contributions here explore the management process from the beginning of a crisis to the long-term effects of the techniques used to minimize it. The first three chapters focus on the earliest responses and the immediate defense of a currency under attack, exploring whether unnecessary damage to economies can be avoided by adopting the right response within the first few days of a financial crisis. Next, contributors examine the adjustment programs that follow, considering how to design these programs so that they shorten the recovery phase, encourage economic growth, and minimize the probability of future difficulties. Finally, the last four papers analyze the actual effects of adjustment programs, asking whether they accomplish what they are designed to do-and whether, as many critics assert, they impose disproportionate costs on the poorest members of society. Recent high-profile currency crises have proven not only how harmful they can be to neighboring economies and trading partners, but also how important policy responses can be in determining their duration and severity. Economists and policymakers will welcome the insightful evaluations in this important volume, and those of its companion, Sebastian Edwards and Jeffrey A. Frankel's Preventing Currency Crises in Emerging Markets.

The Global Emerging Market

Author : Vladimir Kvint
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1135859965
Total Pages : 791 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (358 download)

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Book Synopsis The Global Emerging Market by : Vladimir Kvint

Download or read book The Global Emerging Market written by Vladimir Kvint and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2010-04-26 with total page 791 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Despite the growing importance of the global emerging market (GEM) for the world’s business, economies, and politics, it has received a relatively scant amount of academic attention in business and economics courses. This textbook is the first to focus on the GEM and its strategic and economic characteristics. The Global Emerging Market: Strategic Management and Economics describes the fundamental economic base and trends of the global marketplace (GMP) as well as business and management development for the conditions of emerging-market countries (EMCs). Focusing on the formation of a strategic mindset and the decision making process, it explains how to analyze the basic economic factors and the global order, especially in times of crisis. This text also explains how to classify countries related to this new market of tremendous opportunities. Furthermore, the book includes recommendations on how to develop entry and exit strategies for the GEM, work in it and create efficient management systems. Features include: Extensive tables, charts, and graphs illustrating the strategic considerations of the GMP and the GEM End-of-chapter study questions Practical examples based on the author’s involvement in the development of the GEM, from both sides of the international transactions This academic book is the ideal guide for current business leaders and students on how to make strategic, symmetric, and asymmetric time-sensitive decisions related to the GEM.

Winning in Emerging Markets

Author : Tarun Khanna
Publisher : Harvard Business Press
ISBN 13 : 1422157865
Total Pages : 261 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (221 download)

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Book Synopsis Winning in Emerging Markets by : Tarun Khanna

Download or read book Winning in Emerging Markets written by Tarun Khanna and published by Harvard Business Press. This book was released on 2010-04-28 with total page 261 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The best way to select emerging markets to exploit is to evaluate their size or growth potential, right? Not according to Krishna Palepu and Tarun Khanna. In Winning in Emerging Markets, these leading scholars on the subject present a decidedly different framework for making this crucial choice. The authors argue that the primary exploitable characteristic of emerging markets is the lack of institutions (credit-card systems, intellectual-property adjudication, data research firms) that facilitate efficient business operations. While such "institutional voids" present challenges, they also provide major opportunities-for multinationals and local contenders. Palepu and Khanna provide a playbook for assessing emerging markets' potential and for crafting strategies for succeeding in those markets. They explain how to: · Spot institutional voids in developing economies, including in product, labor, and capital markets, as well as social and political systems · Identify opportunities to fill those voids; for example, by building or improving market institutions yourself · Exploit those opportunities through a rigorous five-phase process, including studying the market over time and acquiring new capabilities Packed with vivid examples and practical toolkits, Winning in Emerging Markets is a crucial resource for any company seeking to define and execute business strategy in developing economies.

Operating in Emerging Markets

Author : Luciano Ciravegna
Publisher : Pearson Education
ISBN 13 : 0132983389
Total Pages : 353 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (329 download)

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Book Synopsis Operating in Emerging Markets by : Luciano Ciravegna

Download or read book Operating in Emerging Markets written by Luciano Ciravegna and published by Pearson Education. This book was released on 2013 with total page 353 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Master a complete roadmap for emerging market business success and profitability! Emerging markets are generating unprecedented opportunities, but they are far more complex and risky than they may seem. Profiting in these markets entails retooling business models, products, and strategies to exploit these differences, instead of falling victim to them. Too many American, European and Japanese companies continue to operate with a "developed world" mentality that seeks to merely adapt existing products and strategies, while underestimating the unique challenges of managing a business in radically different contexts. Operating in Emerging Markets draws from real-life examples and today's most valuable research to offer a step-by-step blueprint for improving profitability in emerging markets. Pioneering researchers Dr. Luciano Ciravegna and Dr. Robert Fitzgerald walk you through understanding the true risks and challenges; identifying and investing the right resources; developing the right strategies, products, and processes; and learning from both the successes and failures that have come before you. An indispensable resource for all decision-makers in companies that are (or plan to) operating in emerging markets; and for all graduate business students who may do so in the future. "Publications devoted to rapidly transforming economies are on the rise, but the contribution is often marginal. This new book, Operating in Emerging Markets , authored by Luciano Ciravegna, Robert Fitzgerald, and Sumit Kundu, is an exception. It provides valuable insights into what makes these economies grow and prosper. Most importantly, it responds to the need for practical approaches to tapping emerging markets. Thus it should assist current and future managers in navigating these high-potential but high-risk countries." --S. Tamer Cavusgil, Callaway Professorial Chair and Executive Director, CIBER, J. Mack Robinson College of Business. Georgia State University

Cracking the Emerging Markets Enigma

Author : G. Andrew Karolyi
Publisher : Oxford University Press, USA
ISBN 13 : 0199336628
Total Pages : 313 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (993 download)

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Book Synopsis Cracking the Emerging Markets Enigma by : G. Andrew Karolyi

Download or read book Cracking the Emerging Markets Enigma written by G. Andrew Karolyi and published by Oxford University Press, USA. This book was released on 2015 with total page 313 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Cracking the Emerging Markets Enigma outlines a rigorous, comprehensive, and practical framework for evaluating the opportunities and, more importantly, the risks of investing in emerging markets. Built on a foundation of sound research on foreign direct and portfolio capital flows, Andrew Karolyi's proposed system of evaluation incorporates multiple dimensions of the potential risks faced by prospective investors in an empirically coherent framework.

Responsible Management in Emerging Markets

Author : Eric Kwame Adae
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030765636
Total Pages : 397 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (37 download)

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Book Synopsis Responsible Management in Emerging Markets by : Eric Kwame Adae

Download or read book Responsible Management in Emerging Markets written by Eric Kwame Adae and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-10-30 with total page 397 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Responsible Management in Emerging Markets: A Multisectoral Focus is in response to the dearth of literature on responsible management in emerging economies. It discusses diverse themes at the intersection of corporate social responsibility (CSR), green business (marketing) and sustainability management, with the view to addressing some begging issues in responsible management. Hinged on the centrality of SDG 12 (responsible production and consumption), this volume focusses on how businesses, nations, and continents across the globe can actualize a sustainable paradigm, now and in the future. It offers fresh theoretical, policy, and managerial insights into the complex processes and relationships that mediate businesses’ ability to deliver on their social development promise, through sustainability and green initiatives. This book discusses some forward and backward linkages between the emerging economy context and responsible management. Featuring cognate topics on CSR, green marketing, green fashion and green entrepreneurship, it offers a Sustainable Development Roadmap (SDR) that is applicable for businesses in emerging economies. This volume is a valuable resource for professionals and academics in emerging economies who desire to understand how firms are demonstrating responsible management through green initiatives, corporate social responsibility and sustainable policies and practices.

Doing Business in Emerging Markets

Author : S. Tamer Cavusgil
Publisher : SAGE
ISBN 13 : 9780761913757
Total Pages : 322 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (137 download)

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Book Synopsis Doing Business in Emerging Markets by : S. Tamer Cavusgil

Download or read book Doing Business in Emerging Markets written by S. Tamer Cavusgil and published by SAGE. This book was released on 2002 with total page 322 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Doing Business in Emerging Markets: Entry and Negotiation Strategies is an authoritative and timely guide for executives who are contemplating business in these markets. Including numerous exhibits and real-world examples, the authors explore analysis and evaluation of market potential, management of the negotiation process, and the recognition of important regional business styles and cultural issues. Students and professors in MBA or Ph.D. programs in international management, marketing, and strategy will also find this an invaluable aid to understanding emerging markets.

Emerging Market Economies and Financial Globalization

Author : Leonardo E. Stanley
Publisher : Anthem Press
ISBN 13 : 1783086750
Total Pages : 260 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (83 download)

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Book Synopsis Emerging Market Economies and Financial Globalization by : Leonardo E. Stanley

Download or read book Emerging Market Economies and Financial Globalization written by Leonardo E. Stanley and published by Anthem Press. This book was released on 2018-03-15 with total page 260 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the past, foreign shocks arrived to national economies mainly through trade channels, and transmissions of such shocks took time to come into effect. However, after capital globalization, shocks spread to markets almost immediately. Despite the increasing macroeconomic dangers that the situation generated at emerging markets in the South, nobody at the North was ready to acknowledge the pro-cyclicality of the financial system and the inner weakness of “decontrolled” financial innovations because they were enjoying from the “great moderation.” Monetary policy was primarily centered on price stability objectives, without considering the mounting credit and asset price booms being generated by market liquidity and the problems generated by this glut. Mainstream economists, in turn, were not majorly attracted in integrating financial factors in their models. External pressures on emerging market economies (EMEs) were not eliminated after 2008, but even increased as international capital flows augmented in relevance thereafter. Initially economic authorities accurately responded to the challenge, but unconventional monetary policies in the US began to create important spillovers in EMEs. Furthermore, in contrast to a previous surge in liquidity, funds were now transmitted to EMEs throughout the bond market. The perspective of an increase in US interest rates by the FED is generating a reversal of expectations and a sudden flight to quality. Emerging countries’ currencies began to experience higher volatility levels, and depreciation movements against a newly strong US dollar are also increasingly observed. Consequently, there are increasing doubts that the “unexpected” favorable outcome observed in most EMEs at the aftermath of the Global Financial Crisis (GFC) would remain.

Emerging Multinationals in Emerging Markets

Author : Ravi Ramamurti
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1139477498
Total Pages : 441 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (394 download)

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Book Synopsis Emerging Multinationals in Emerging Markets by : Ravi Ramamurti

Download or read book Emerging Multinationals in Emerging Markets written by Ravi Ramamurti and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2009-04-16 with total page 441 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Why have so many firms in emerging economies internationalized quite aggressively in the last decade? What competitive advantages do these firms enjoy and what are the origins of those advantages? Through what strategies have they built their global presence? How is their internationalization affecting Western rivals? And, finally, what does all this mean for mainstream international business theory? In Emerging Multinationals in Emerging Markets, a distinguished group of international business scholars tackle these questions based on a shared research design. The heart of the book contains detailed studies of emerging-market multinationals (EMNEs) from the BRIC economies, plus Israel, Mexico, South Africa, and Thailand. The studies show that EMNEs come in many shapes and sizes, depending on the home-country context. Furthermore, EMNEs leverage distinctive competitive advantages and pursue distinctive internationalization paths. This timely analysis of EMNEs promises to enrich mainstream models of how firms internationalize in today's global economy.

Emerging Markets and the Global Economy

Author : Mohammed El Hedi Arouri
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 0124115632
Total Pages : 927 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (241 download)

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Book Synopsis Emerging Markets and the Global Economy by : Mohammed El Hedi Arouri

Download or read book Emerging Markets and the Global Economy written by Mohammed El Hedi Arouri and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2013-12-26 with total page 927 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Emerging Markets and the Global Economy investigates analytical techniques suited to emerging market economies, which are typically prone to policy shocks. Despite the large body of emerging market finance literature, their underlying dynamics and interactions with other economies remain challenging and mysterious because standard financial models measure them imprecisely. Describing the linkages between emerging and developed markets, this collection systematically explores several crucial issues in asset valuation and risk management. Contributors present new theoretical constructions and empirical methods for handling cross-country volatility and sudden regime shifts. Usually attractive for investors because of the superior growth they can deliver, emerging markets can have a low correlation with developed markets. This collection advances your knowledge about their inherent characteristics. Foreword by Ali M. Kutan - Concentrates on post-crisis roles of emerging markets in the global economy - Reports on key theoretical and technical developments in emerging financial markets - Forecasts future developments in linkages among developed and emerging economies

Doing Business in Emerging Markets

Author : Sudhir Rana
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1000434923
Total Pages : 250 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (4 download)

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Book Synopsis Doing Business in Emerging Markets by : Sudhir Rana

Download or read book Doing Business in Emerging Markets written by Sudhir Rana and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2021-09-27 with total page 250 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume presents a comprehensive analysis of the business, financial and economic aspects of emerging markets. Using case studies from India, Turkey, Bangladesh and Africa, it discusses themes such as megaprojects, infrastructure and sustainability; cross-border mergers and acquisitions; a new paradigm for educational markets; exports competitiveness; work engagement in service sector; mobile banking and crowdfunding; and venture capital flow into emerging economies, to focus on the trade, foreign investment, financial, and social progress of these economies. The chapters review the current state, learnings, changing scenarios, business practices, and financial and economic perspectives across emerging markets while examining progression, challenges and the way forward. With its rigorous approach and topical content, this book will be useful to scholars and researchers of management studies, business management, financial management, business economics, international business, finance and marketing, development studies and economics. It will also interest policymakers and practitioners in the field.

International Strategy of Emerging Market Firms

Author : Andrei Panibratov
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1317447484
Total Pages : 435 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (174 download)

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Book Synopsis International Strategy of Emerging Market Firms by : Andrei Panibratov

Download or read book International Strategy of Emerging Market Firms written by Andrei Panibratov and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2017-03-16 with total page 435 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Emerging economies are expected to be in the driver's seat of the global economy in the medium and long term. Large multinational corporations will account for much of this activity. In this textbook, Andrei Panibratov explains how emerging market firms accumulate and exploit market knowledge to develop competitive advantages whilst operating globally. Chapters dedicated to the key emerging economies - Brazil, Russia, India and China (BRIC) - are enhanced by detailed case studies of large firms’ activities. The book is divided into four parts, focusing on the following: An outline of the relevant terminology and the context of the international strategy of emerging market firms, providing an introductory foundation for the whole book. A guide to the evolution of perspectives regarding international strategy, designed to illustrate the changes and trends in the recent academic research on internationalization. A country-by-country illustration of the internationalization of BRIC economies and firms, providing an overall picture of each country’s global integration, outward investments, and strategies. The concepts and practices behind the strategies employed by different firms. Written by an established international business scholar, this book is essential reading for students of international strategy who wish to understand the importance of the emerging economies.

Building Supply Chain Excellence in Emerging Economies

Author : Hau L. Lee
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 0387384294
Total Pages : 472 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (873 download)

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Book Synopsis Building Supply Chain Excellence in Emerging Economies by : Hau L. Lee

Download or read book Building Supply Chain Excellence in Emerging Economies written by Hau L. Lee and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2007-12-14 with total page 472 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book will help readers to better manage supply chains in emerging economics. It addresses a host of issues and challenges, from infrastructure constraints and the logistics inefficiencies to contributing to the social and environmental developments of emerging economies. Innovative approaches are outlined and illustrated with examples of real-world experiences by progressive companies and thought leaders.

Emerging Markets and E-Commerce in Developing Economies

Author : Rouibah, Kamel
Publisher : IGI Global
ISBN 13 : 1605661015
Total Pages : 498 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (56 download)

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Book Synopsis Emerging Markets and E-Commerce in Developing Economies by : Rouibah, Kamel

Download or read book Emerging Markets and E-Commerce in Developing Economies written by Rouibah, Kamel and published by IGI Global. This book was released on 2008-10-31 with total page 498 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "This book provides researchers readers with a synthesis of current research on developing countries experience with e-commerce"--Provided by publisher.

Emerging Markets Rule: Growth Strategies of the New Global Giants

Author : Mauro F. Guillen
Publisher : McGraw Hill Professional
ISBN 13 : 0071798129
Total Pages : 209 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (717 download)

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Book Synopsis Emerging Markets Rule: Growth Strategies of the New Global Giants by : Mauro F. Guillen

Download or read book Emerging Markets Rule: Growth Strategies of the New Global Giants written by Mauro F. Guillen and published by McGraw Hill Professional. This book was released on 2012-11-16 with total page 209 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: SEIZE THE ADVANTAGE IN THE GLOBAL WAR FOR MARKET SHARE Winner of the 2013 Small Business Book Award - Top 10 Overall The newest economic behemoth, China, is snatching market share from the U.S., Japan, and Europe at an alarming rate. But China isn't alone. The world's largest producers of biofuel, meat, consumer electronics, regional jets, baked goods, candy, and many other products are all emerging market multinationals (EMMs). And industries poised to be taken over by EMMs include personal computers, IT services, mining, wind turbines, and cement. The balance of power in the global economy is shifting. Are you in a position to compete with the most energetic, imaginative companies on the planet? In Emerging Markets Rule, two experts on the global shift in economic hegemony explain what is happening, why it is happening--and how you can prevent it from happening to you. The authors provide an action plan based on leaner, more operationally proficient ways for maintaining the competitive advantage based on seven new axioms of global competitiveness: Execute, strategize, and execute again Cater to the niches Scale to win Embrace chaos Acquire smart Expand with abandon No sacred cows! Emerging market multinationals are here to stay; they're not going to go away, even when the global economy rights itself. "What began as a necessity--a kind of guerilla-business warfare against the corporate superpowers--has now evolved into best practices and is on its way to becoming what everyone needs to know," the authors write. "Simply put, down is up. The weak have become strong." You need to learn these new "best practices" now because tomorrow will be too late. Emerging Markets Rule is your road map for business success in the increasingly competitive, chaotic global markets. "Emerging-market multinationals have reshaped global competition. Using well-articulated views duly substantiated with facts, this book explains why and how they have become formidable players in both high-technology and traditional industries. This book is a worthy read for businesses and individuals alike seeking to comprehend the phenomenon of the emerging market multinational." -- S. D. Shibulal, CEO and Managing Director , Infosys "This book shows the strength and potential of companies that stand out in emerging markets, reaffirming entrepreneurship, innovation, and sustainability as fundamental factors for the outbreak of global competitors." -- Alessandro Carlucci , CEO, Natura Cosmeticos "The authors have touched on an important idea that emerging market growth can often be tapped by companies located in those markets. This is an essential book leading us to identify the niche markets and strategies for those emerging markets. A must for all international companies with growth ambitions." -- Leonard A. Lauder, Chairman Emeritus, The Estee Lauder Companies "A must-read for any company on its way to becoming a global one. You will learn from companies that have developed unique ways of competing in tough markets such as China and India." -- Jorge Zarate , China General Manager, Grupo Bimbo

Global Finance in Emerging Market Economies

Author : Todd Knoop
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 113508226X
Total Pages : 330 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (35 download)

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Book Synopsis Global Finance in Emerging Market Economies by : Todd Knoop

Download or read book Global Finance in Emerging Market Economies written by Todd Knoop and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2013-02-11 with total page 330 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Emerging market economies have accounted for three quarters of world economic growth and more than half of world output over the last decade. But the energy and ideas inherent in emerging economies cannot generate growth by themselves without resources to support them — and first among these resources is money which is needed to purchase the capital and knowhow that turn ideas and initiative into income. How do emerging economies rich in resources other than money get money? This question encapsulates what emerging market finance is all about, and why finance is absolutely crucial to economic development. In emerging countries, most of the population does not have access to bank accounts or financial markets to save or borrow. The result is that many firms cannot get access to financial resources to grow, while households cannot borrow and save in ways that could reduce the riskiness and poverty of their lives. Even those that do have access to formal finance find that credit is unreliable and expensive. These financial failures limit growth and also increase the frequency of costly financial crises. These issues, and many more like them, mean that finance in emerging economies is different and often more complex than the view presented in most textbooks, where finance is only considered from the perspective of wealthy, developed economies. This book addresses this failure by focusing on the important characteristics of financial systems in emerging market economies and their differences from those in developed countries. This book surveys both theoretical and empirical research on finance in emerging economies, as well as reviewing numerous case studies. The final chapters describe and compare financial systems within the four different regions that encompass most emerging economies: Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and South America.