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Investigation On Flame Characteristics And Burner Operability Issues Of Oxy Fuel Combustion
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Book Synopsis Investigation on Flame Characteristics and Burner Operability Issues of Oxy-Fuel Combustion by :
Download or read book Investigation on Flame Characteristics and Burner Operability Issues of Oxy-Fuel Combustion written by and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 76 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Oxy-fuel combustion has been used previously in a wide range of industrial applications. Oxy- combustion is carried out by burning a hydrocarbon fuel with oxygen instead of air. Flames burning in this configuration achieve higher flame temperatures which present opportunities for significant efficiency improvements and direct capture of CO2 from the exhaust stream. In an effort to better understand and characterize the fundamental flame characteristics of oxy-fuel combustion this research presents the experimental measurements of flame stability of various oxyfuel flames. Effects of H2 concentration, fuel composition, exhaust gas recirculation ratio, firing inputs, and burner diameters on the flame stability of these fuels are discussed. Effects of exhaust gas recirculation i.e. CO2 and H2O (steam) acting as diluents on burner operability are also presented. The roles of firing input on flame stability are then analyzed. For this study it was observed that many oxy-flames did not stabilize without exhaust gas recirculation due to their higher burning velocities. In addition, the stability regime of all compositions was observed to decrease as the burner diameter increased. A flashback model is also presented, using the critical velocity gradient gF) values for CH4-O2-CO2 flames. The second part of the study focuses on the experimental measurements of the flow field characteristics of premixed CH4/21%O2/79%N2 and CH4/38%O2/72%CO2 mixtures at constant firing input of 7.5 kW, constant, equivalence ratio of 0.8, constant swirl number of 0.92 and constant Reynolds Numbers. These measurements were taken in a swirl stabilized combustor at atmospheric pressure. The flow field visualization using Particle Imaging Velocimetry (PIV) technique is implemented to make a better understanding of the turbulence characteristics of CH4/air and CH4/38%O2/72%CO2 combustion. The velocity fluctuations, turbulence intensities and local propagation velocities along the combustion chamber have been determined. The turbulent intensities increase as we move away from the combustor axis. CH4-38%O2-72%CO2 flames have low radial velocity and turbulent intensity distributions at different axial distances when compared with CH4-Air flames.
Book Synopsis Investigation on Flame Characteristics of Oxy-fuel Combustion by : Md. Rafiqul Islam
Download or read book Investigation on Flame Characteristics of Oxy-fuel Combustion written by Md. Rafiqul Islam and published by . This book was released on 2011 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Laser-based Investigation of Gas and Solid Fuel Combustion under Oxy-Fuel Atmosphere by : Sebastian Bürkle
Download or read book Laser-based Investigation of Gas and Solid Fuel Combustion under Oxy-Fuel Atmosphere written by Sebastian Bürkle and published by BoD – Books on Demand. This book was released on 2019-03-04 with total page 190 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Oxy-fuel combustion has the potential to reduce the atmospheric CO2-emissions of fossil fuel power plants by burning gaseous or solid fuels under an atmosphere of carbon dioxide and oxygen. The combustion under oxy-fuel operating conditions, however, is accompanied by major changes in the combustion behavior. The underlying chemical and physical processes are complex and highly coupled, which impedes investigations and modeling. Since tactile and most of the optical measurement techniques fail under the sensitive and simultaneously harsh environments of oxy-fuel combustion, an optical in-situ measurement system based on tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy is developed in this work. This system allows to investigate the thermochemical state of combustion gases with respect to the quantitative concentrations of multiple combustion-relevant gases and the gas temperature. In combination with a newly developed and applied measurement strategy, the system even allows for a measurement of the gas residence time distribution. To improve the measurement accuracy, multiple absorption line parameters are experimentally determined. The measurement system is applied to three oxy-fuel combustion systems. First, the thermochemical state of the laminar, non-premixed methane combustion under oxy-fuel atmosphere is studied. The turbulent, premixed combustion of the same fuel under air and two oxy-fuel atmospheres is studied in a 20 kWth swirled combustor. Measurements of the residence time distribution of fluids in the combustion chamber provide insights into mixing and transport properties of the flow. The thermochemical state reveals insights into the reaction progess and flow mixing. Co-firing of three different solid fuels in an assisting gas flame is investigated for a combined thermal power up to 40 kWth. Here, the char burnout of the particles is investigated. The thermochemical state of the combustion of pure torrefied biomass under air and oxy-fuel combustion atmosphere is investigated in a 60 kWth close-to-application facility and compared to equillibrium calculations.
Book Synopsis Oxy-fuel Combustion by : Chuguang Zheng
Download or read book Oxy-fuel Combustion written by Chuguang Zheng and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2017-09-14 with total page 386 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Oxy-fuel Combustion: Fundamentals, Theory and Practice provides a comprehensive review of various aspects of oxy-fuel combustion technology, including its concept, fundamental theory, pilot practice, large-scale feasibility studies and related practical issues, such as the commissioning and operation of an oxy-fuel combustion plant. Oxy-fuel combustion, as the most practical large-scale carbon capture power generation technology, has attracted significant attention in the past two decades. As significant progress has been achieved in worldwide demonstration and the oxy-combustion concept confirmed by Schwartze Pump, CUIDEN, Callide, Ponferrada and Yingcheng projects in the past five years, this book provides a timely addition for discussion and study. Covers oxy-fuel combustion technology Includes concepts, fundamentals, pilots and large-scale feasibility studies Considers related practical issues, such as the commissioning and operation of an oxy-fuel combustion plant Focuses on theories and methods closely related to engineering practice
Book Synopsis Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion, Second Edition by : Charles E. Baukal Jr.
Download or read book Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion, Second Edition written by Charles E. Baukal Jr. and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2013-03-15 with total page 795 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Combustion technology has traditionally been dominated by air/fuel combustion. However, two developments have increased the significance of oxygen-enhanced combustion—new technologies that produce oxygen less expensively and the increased importance of environmental regulations. Advantages of oxygen-enhanced combustion include less pollutant emissions as well as increased energy efficiency and productivity. Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion, Second Edition compiles information about using oxygen to enhance industrial heating and melting processes. It integrates fundamental principles, applications, and equipment design in one volume, making it a unique resource for specialists implementing the use of oxygen in combustion systems. This second edition of the bestselling book has more than doubled in size. Extensively updated and expanded, it covers significant advances in the technology that have occurred since the publication of the first edition. What’s New in This Edition Expanded from 11 chapters to 30, with most of the existing chapters revised A broader view of oxygen-enhanced combustion, with more than 50 contributors from over 20 organizations around the world More coverage of fundamentals, including fluid flow, heat transfer, noise, flame impingement, CFD modeling, soot formation, burner design, and burner testing New chapters on applications such as flameless combustion, steel reheating, iron production, cement production, power generation, fluidized bed combustion, chemicals and petrochemicals, and diesel engines This book offers a unified, up-to-date look at important commercialized uses of oxygen-enhanced combustion in a wide range of industries. It brings together the latest knowledge to assist those researching, engineering, and implementing combustion in power plants, engines, and other applications.
Book Synopsis Oxy-combustion of High Water Content Fuels by : Fei Yi
Download or read book Oxy-combustion of High Water Content Fuels written by Fei Yi and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 128 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As the issues of global warming and the energy crisis arouse extensive concern, more and more research is focused on maximizing energy efficiency and capturing CO2 in power generation. To achieve this, in this research, we propose an unconventional concept of combustion - direct combustion of high water content fuels. Due to the high water content in the fuels, they may not burn under air-fired conditions. Therefore, oxy-combustion is applied. Three applications of this concept in power generation are proposed - direct steam generation for the turbine cycle, staged oxy-combustion with zero flue gas recycle, and oxy-combustion in a low speed diesel-type engine. The proposed processes could provide alternative approaches to directly utilize fuels which intrinsically have high water content. A large amount of energy to remove the water, when the fuels are utilized in a conventional approach, is saved. The properties and difficulty in dewatering high water content fuels (e.g. bioethanol, microalgae and fine coal) are summarized. These fuels include both renewable and fossil fuels. In addition, the technique can also allow for low-cost carbon capture due to oxy-combustion. When renewable fuel is utilized, the whole process can be carbon negative. To validate and evaluate this concept, the research focused on the investigation of the flame stability and characteristics for high water content fuels. My study has demonstrated the feasibility of burning fuels that have been heavily diluted with water in a swirl-stabilized burner. Ethanol and 1-propanol were first tested as the fuels and the flame stability maps were obtained. Flame stability, as characterized by the blow-off limit -- the lowest O2 concentration when a flame could exist under a given oxidizer flow rate, was determined as a function of total oxidizer flow rate, fuel concentration and nozzle type. Furthermore, both the gas temperature contour and the overall ethanol concentration in the droplets along the spray were measured in the chamber for a stable flame. The experimental results indicate significant preferential vaporization of ethanol over water. Modeling results support this observation and indicate that the vaporization process is best described as the distillation limit mode with enhanced mass transfer by convection. Further, the influence of preferential vaporization on flame stability was investigated. A procedure was developed to evaluate the extent of preferential vaporization and subsequent flame stability of a fuel in aqueous solution. Various water soluble fuels were analyzed via this procedure in order to identify a chemical fuel showing strong preferential vaporization. t-Butanol was identified as having excellent physical and chemical properties, indicating stronger preferential vaporization than ethanol. Flame stability tests were run for aqueous solutions of both t-butanol and ethanol under identical flow conditions. Flame stability was characterized by the blow-off limit. In each comparison, the energy contents in the two solutions were kept the same. For the experiments under high swirl flow conditions (100% swirl flow), 12.5 wt% t-butanol has slightly lower blow-off limits than 15 wt% ethanol, and 8.3 wt% t-butanol has much lower blow-off limits than 10 wt% ethanol. For the experiments under a low swirl flow condition (50% swirl/50% axial flow), 12.5 wt% t-butanol has a much lower blow-off limit than 15 wt% ethanol. The time to release the fuel from a droplet was also calculated for both ethanol and t-butanol. For the same size droplet, the time to release t-butanol is much shorter than that of ethanol under the same conditions. Faster release of the fuel from water enhances flame stability, which is consistent with the experimental results. For the oxy-combustion characteristics of low-volatility fuel with high water content, glycerol was chosen as the fuel to study. It is found that self-sustained flame can be obtained for glycerol solution with concentration as high as 60 wt%, when burned in pure O2. However, the flame is lifted far away from the nozzle. To obtain a stable flame for a low glycerol concentration solution, t-butanol or ethanol was added as an additive. Experiments showed that an attached flame can be obtained by burning a mixture of 8.3 wt% t-butanol, 30 wt% glycerol and 61.7 wt% water (B8.3/G30) or 10 wt% ethanol, 30 wt% glycerol and 60 wt% water (E10/G30) under oxy-fired condition. The flame stability for B8.3/G30 and E10/G30 was characterized under 100% and 85% swirl flow conditions. Under 100% swirl flow condition, the blow-off limits are approximately the same for both cases. Under 85% swirl, the blow-off limits for B8.3/G30 are much lower in the low flow rate region. Additionally, the lift-off limits for B8.3/G30 are lower than those for E10/G30, which means the flame stability for B8.3/G30 is better. To study the flame structure, contours of temperature across the chamber's centerline were obtained for four attached flames. It was found that the flame becomes narrower as the swirl intensity decreases. A high temperature zone in the inner recirculation zone (IRZ) is formed for the four flames. This hot zone is critical to provide heat to vaporize the glycerol in near burner region, so that flame can be attached on the nozzle. For practical purposes, a PRB coal water slurry was studied in terms of preparation, characterization, atomization and combustion. A procedure to prepare stable coal water slurry from PRB coal was developed. Triton X-100 is a good nonionic surfactant for PRB coal. On the contrary, PSS, which is ionic, is not effective for PRB coal. Due to the hydrophilic surface property of PRB coal, the maximum loading of the coal in slurry can only reach 50 wt%. The viscosities of slurries containing various concentrations of Triton X-100 were measured. To deliver the slurry in a burner, two types of two fluid nozzles -- internal mixing and external mixing -- were investigated and both nozzles were able to generate a spray with good quality. Preliminary oxy-combustion experiments were successfully conducted. Due to the high swirl flow in the combustor, the nozzle overheated which caused clogging. Additional research is needed to solve this issue and characterize the flame systematically.
Book Synopsis Combustion Technology by : Vasudevan Raghavan
Download or read book Combustion Technology written by Vasudevan Raghavan and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2016-08-01 with total page 194 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A comprehensive review of the fundamentals aspects of combustion, covering fundamental thermodynamics and chemical kinetics through to practical burners. It provides a detailed analysis of the basic ideas and design characteristics of burners for gaseous, liquid and solid fuels. End of chapter review questions help the reader to evaluate their understanding of both the fundamental as well as the application aspects. Furthermore, a chapter on alternative renewable fuels has been included to bring out the need, characteristics and usage of alternative fuels along with fossil fuels. A section on future trends in fuels and burners is also provided. Several key research articles have been cited in the text and listed in the references.
Book Synopsis Approaches for Clean Combustion in Gas Turbines by : Medhat A. Nemitallah
Download or read book Approaches for Clean Combustion in Gas Turbines written by Medhat A. Nemitallah and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-03-24 with total page 426 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book focuses on the development of novel combustion approaches and burner designs for clean power generation in gas turbines. It shows the reader how to control the release of pollutants to the environment in an effort to reduce global warming. After an introduction to global warming issues and clean power production for gas turbine applications, subsequent chapters address premixed combustion, burner designs for clean power generation, gas turbine performance, and insights on gas turbine operability. Given its scope, the book can be used as a textbook for graduate-level courses on clean combustion, or as a reference book to accompany compact courses for mechanical engineers and young researchers around the world.
Book Synopsis Experimental Investigations on Combustion and Emission Behaviour During Oxy-coal Combustion by : Bhupesh Dhungel
Download or read book Experimental Investigations on Combustion and Emission Behaviour During Oxy-coal Combustion written by Bhupesh Dhungel and published by . This book was released on 2010 with total page 170 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion by : Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
Download or read book Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion written by Charles E. Baukal, Jr. and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 1998-05-20 with total page 384 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Combustion technology has traditionally been dominated by air/fuel combustion. However, two developments have increased the significance of oxygen-enhanced combustion - new technology producing oxygen less expensively and the increased importance of environmental regulations. Advantages of oxygen-enhanced combustion include numerous environmental benefits as well as increased energy efficiency and productivity. The text compiles information about using oxygen to enhance high temperature industrial heating and melting processes - serving as a unique resource for specialists implementing the use of oxygen in combustion systems; combustion equipment and industrial gas suppliers; researchers; funding agencies for advanced combustion technologies; and agencies developing regulations for safe, efficient, and environmentally friendly combustion systems. Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion: Examines the fundamentals of using oxygen in combustion, pollutant emissions, oxygen production, and heat transfer Describes ferrous and nonferrous metals, glass, and incineration Discusses equipment, safety, design, and fuels Assesses recent trends including stricter environmental regulations, lower-cost methods of producing oxygen, improved burner designs, and increasing fuel costs Emphasizing applications and basic principles, this book will act as the primary resource for mechanical, chemical, aerospace, and environmental engineers and scientists; physical chemists; fuel technologists; fluid dynamists; and combustion design engineers. Topics include: General benefits Economics Potential problems Pollutant emissions Oxygen production Adsorption Air separation Heat transfer Ferrous metals Melting and refining processes Nonferrous metals Minerals Glass furnaces Incineration Safety Handling and storage Equipment design Flow controls Fuels
Author :North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development Publisher : ISBN 13 : Total Pages :582 pages Book Rating :4.3/5 (91 download)
Book Synopsis Selected Combustion Problems by : North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development
Download or read book Selected Combustion Problems written by North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development and published by . This book was released on 1954 with total page 582 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Radiative Properties and Combustion Chemistry in Oxy-fuel Flames by : Stefan Hjärtstam
Download or read book Radiative Properties and Combustion Chemistry in Oxy-fuel Flames written by Stefan Hjärtstam and published by . This book was released on 2011 with total page 155 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Flame Characteristics and Application of Flameless Combustion by : Erwann Guillou
Download or read book Flame Characteristics and Application of Flameless Combustion written by Erwann Guillou and published by . This book was released on 2008 with total page 215 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Flameless combustion is a technique obtained by operating at high level of turbulence and temperature of oxidizer higher than the autoignition temperature of the air and fuel mixture. Lately, it has received much attention because of its benefits in terms of energy saving and low NOX emission rate. This thesis aims to collect information, both in theory and practice, which can be useful in understanding the change of combustion regime under typical conditions. An overview of the main motivations to provide new combustion systems until the development of flameless combustion and its interesting characteristics is first presented. An experimental flameless burner, developed from the collaboration between the University of Cincinnati and Goodrich Turbine Fuel Technologies, is then investigated under atmospheric gas turbine engine conditions. The experimental results are subdivided in two parts: first, the characterization of the burner under thermodynamic influences and then, the presentation of qualitative and quantitative results acquired over several gaseous and liquid flames which determines the effect of fuel properties on flame characteristics. At high preheated air temperature and high pressure drop, it was shown that flameless combustion occurred under very stable conditions. The fuel chemical properties were found to have a subtle effect on the flameless oxidation of fuel with notably an interesting behavior under butane atomization. All the results were finally conclusive on a potential application of such a regime of combustion to gas turbine engine.
Book Synopsis Investigation of Oxy-fuel Combustion Behind Reflected Shock Waves by : Owen Marcus Pryor
Download or read book Investigation of Oxy-fuel Combustion Behind Reflected Shock Waves written by Owen Marcus Pryor and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page 109 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Supercritical carbon dioxide has brought about new questions on the chemical kinetics of several small hydrocarbon fuels and the effects of carbon dioxide as the primary diluent on the different fuels. This report presents work on the ignition delay times and several species time-histories of methane, ethylene and syngas over a range of conditions. All experiments were conducted behind reflected shock waves using two different shock tubes. The ignition delay times were measured using a GaP photodetector to measure the emission of light. The species time-histories were measured using single laser spectroscopy. The effect of CO2 as a diluent on the fluid dynamics of the system were also examined using high-speed camera images. It was determined that the ignition delay times and fuel time-histories were able to be accurately predicted by mechanisms in the literature for pressures up to 30 atm but the literature mechanisms were unable to predict the carbon monoxide time-histories beyond qualitative trends for the various fuels. It was also determined that the carbon monoxide had a string effect on the fluid dynamics of the experiments resulting in a significantly smaller chemical reaction zone. Experiments were also performed to examine the effects of water as a diluent with a ratio up to 66% of the total diluent on the ignition delay times. Using the experimental data, a global kinetic mechanism was created for methane and syngas to predict the ignition delay times and the carbon monoxide time-histories for pressures up to 300 atm.
Book Synopsis MILD Combustion: Modelling Challenges, Experimental Configurations and Diagnostic Tools by : Alessandro Parente
Download or read book MILD Combustion: Modelling Challenges, Experimental Configurations and Diagnostic Tools written by Alessandro Parente and published by Frontiers Media SA. This book was released on 2021-11-26 with total page 160 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Dilute Oxygen Combustion. Phase I Report by :
Download or read book Dilute Oxygen Combustion. Phase I Report written by and published by . This book was released on 1997 with total page 105 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A novel burner, in which fuel (natural gas) and oxidant (oxygen or air) are separately injected into a furnace, shows promise for achieving very low nitrogen oxide(s) (NO(subscript x)) emissions for commercial furnace applications. The dilute oxygen combustion (DOC) burner achieves very low NO(subscript x) through in-furnace dilution of the oxidant stream prior to combustion, resulting in low flame temperatures, thus inhibiting thermal NO(subscript x) production. The results of a fundamental and applied research effort on the development of the DOC burner are presented. In addition, the results of a market survey detailing the potential commercial impact of the DOC system are disclosed. The fundamental aspects of the burner development project involved examining the flame characteristics of a natural gas turbulent jet in a high-temperature ((approximately)1366 K) oxidant (7-27% O2 vol. wet). Specifically, the mass entrainment rate, the flame lift-off height, the velocity field and major species field of the jet were evaluated as a function of surrounding-gas temperature and composition. The measured entrainment rate of the fuel jet decreased with increasing oxygen content in the surrounding high-temperature oxidant, and was well represented by the d scaling correlation found in the literature. The measured flame lift-off height decreased with increasing oxygen content and increasing temperature of the surrounding gas. An increase in surrounding-gas oxygen content and/or temperature inhibited the velocity decay within the jet periphery as a function of axial distance as compared to isothermal turbulent jets. However, the velocity measurements were only broadly represented by the d scaling correlation. Several DOC burner configurations were tested in a laboratory-scale furnace at a nominal firing rate of 185 kW ((approximately)0.63 MMBtu/h). The flue gas composition was recorded as a function of furnace nitrogen content, furnace temperature, burner geometric arrangement, firing rate, and fuel injection velocity. NO(subscript x) emissions increased with increasing furnace nitrogen content and furnace temperature, but remained relatively insensitive to variations in fuel injection velocity and firing rate. NO(subscript x) emissions below 5 x 10−3 g/MJ (10 ppm-air equivalent at 3% O2 dry) were obtained for furnace temperatures below 1533 K (2300°F) and furnace nitrogen levels between 1 and 40%. CO emissions were typically low (
Book Synopsis Dilute Oxygen Combustion Phase I Final Report by :
Download or read book Dilute Oxygen Combustion Phase I Final Report written by and published by . This book was released on 1997 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A novel burner, in which fuel (natural gas) and oxidant (oxygen or air) are separately injected into a furnace, shows promise for achieving very low nitrogen oxide(s) (NOx) emissions for commercial furnace applications. The dilute oxygen combustion (DOC) burner achieves very low NOx through in-furnace dilution of the oxidant stream prior to combustion, resulting in low flame temperatures, thus inhibiting thermal NOx production. The results of a fundamental and applied research effort on the development of the DOC burner are presented. In addition, the results of a market survey detailing the potential commercial impact of the DOC system are disclosed. The fundamental aspects of the burner development project involved examining the flame characteristics of a natural gas turbulent jet in a high-temperature (~1366 K) oxidant (7-27% O2 vol. wet). Specifically, the mass entrainment rate, the flame lift-off height, the velocity field and major species field of the jet were evaluated as a function of surrounding-gas temperature and composition. The measured entrainment rate of the fuel jet decreased with increasing oxygen content in the surrounding high-temperature oxidant, and was well represented by the d+ scaling correlation found in the literature. The measured flame lift-off height decreased with increasing oxygen content and increasing temperature of the surrounding gas. An increase in surrounding-gas oxygen content and/or temperature inhibited the velocity decay within the jet periphery as a function of axial distance as compared to isothermal turbulent jets. However, the velocity measurements were only broadly represented by the d+ scaling correlation. Several DOC burner configurations were tested in a laboratory-scale furnace at a nominal firing rate of 185 kW (~0.63 MMBtu/h). The flue gas composition was recorded as a function of furnace nitrogen content, furnace temperature, burner geometric arrangement, firing rate, and fuel injection velocity. NOx emissions increased with increasing furnace nitrogen content and furnace temperature, but remained relatively insensitive to variations in fuel injection velocity and firing rate. NOx emissions below 5-10-3 g/MJ (10 ppm-air equivalent at 3% O2 dry) were obtained for furnace temperatures below 1533 K (2300°F) and furnace nitrogen levels between 1 and 40%. CO emissions were typically low (
