How have US Drone Strikes Impacted Pakistani Civilians?

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Publisher : GRIN Verlag
ISBN 13 : 3668526532
Total Pages : 29 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (685 download)

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Book Synopsis How have US Drone Strikes Impacted Pakistani Civilians? by : Eike Christian Behrensen

Download or read book How have US Drone Strikes Impacted Pakistani Civilians? written by Eike Christian Behrensen and published by GRIN Verlag. This book was released on 2017-09-18 with total page 29 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Seminar paper from the year 2017 in the subject Politics - International Politics - Topic: Peace and Conflict Studies, Security, grade: 1.0, Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, language: English, abstract: Since as early as 2004 the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) has been conducting drone strikes in Pakistan. The declared targets are terrorists and militants present in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA). When asked about these drone strikes in Pakistan, the United States Government claims, that “there hasn’t been a single collateral death because of the exceptional proficiency, precision of the capabilities we’ve been able to develop.” At the same time, according to widely cited databases, compiled by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism 424 to 969 civilians have been killed in U.S. drone strikes. It has to be noted that for years, the US Government did not publically admit to conducting drone strikes in Pakistan, Yemen or Somalia. This is due to the fact that strikes in these countries are not conducted by the US Military, but rather by the CIA. The majority of the information revolving around these strikes is classified and not accessible to the public. How targets are chosen, what the official policy on civilian casualties is, or how many strikes were actually conducted is unknown. Much of the information concerning government perspectives, policies and programs comes from anonymous sources, who have leaked data to major news outlets. The first chapter will focus on the main area where these drone strikes are conducted, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) of Pakistan. The area will be introduced to the reader and a historic context for the present conflict and struggle will be given. The specifics of the US drone program will be outlined in the second chapter. Like already mentioned, much on the information regarding the program and conducted strikes is classified. Nevertheless, with the publically available information an overview will be given. The third chapter will provide essential information on the impact of drone strikes on Pakistani civilians, which is necessary to answer the research question “How have US Drone Strikes impacted Pakistani Civilians?” To deepen the understanding of the correlation between drone strikes and subsequent terrorist attacks, which cause additional hardship in the civilian population, strike data will be analyzed in the fourth chapter. The report will conclude in the fifth chapter, where a final overview on the topic will be given and the research question stated earlier will be answered with the gained information [...]

After the Dead are Counted

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 29 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (98 download)

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Book Synopsis After the Dead are Counted by : Open Society Foundations

Download or read book After the Dead are Counted written by Open Society Foundations and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 29 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: U.S. drone strikes in Pakistan are estimated to have killed well over 2,000 individuals, including an unknown number of civilians. Despite long-voiced concern over civilian harm, and U.S. officials' promises of greater transparency, the United States has clearly and consistently failed to account for and provide redress and compensation for civilian harm from these strikes. Pakistan, however, could also be doing much more to improve transparency and accountability, and provide compensation for civilian harm in the absence of redress from the U.S. government. Based on investigations of 27 separate U.S. drone strikes in Pakistan, and interviews with current and former U.S. and Pakistani officials, the report documents civilian casualties and analyzes the broader threats of militancy and military operations in areas affected by drones. Despite Pakistan's strong public opposition to U.S. drone strikes, and the United States' promises on transparency, neither government has addressed the losses suffered by civilians. The report concludes that the U.S. and Pakistani governments should create mechanisms to investigate civilian harm from drone strikes and provide compensation to victims.

US Drone Policy and Anti-American Sentiments in Pakistan (2001-2012)

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Author :
Publisher : EduPedia Publications
ISBN 13 : 1511743573
Total Pages : 85 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (117 download)

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Book Synopsis US Drone Policy and Anti-American Sentiments in Pakistan (2001-2012) by : Waseem Zeab Khan

Download or read book US Drone Policy and Anti-American Sentiments in Pakistan (2001-2012) written by Waseem Zeab Khan and published by EduPedia Publications. This book was released on 2014-09-03 with total page 85 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The drone attacks started in Pakistan in 2004 under the Bush presidency, and are still operating, targeting the so-called ‘High value’ targets. But the high value targets are not achieved, but the local Taliban, and many civilians are being killed in these covert drone strikes. It is noteworthy that, Obama administration has increased these drone strikes in Pakistan as compared to that of Bush administration. President Obama has adopted the policy of ‘to kill and not to capture’ to pursue the high value targets or al-Qaeda members which have taken asylum in some areas of Pakistan. But this policy had caused many civilian casualties, and also destroyed the Pakistan’s sovereignty. The covert drone strikes in Pakistan are conducted by CIA which is not the part of the US army. Many innocent civilians are being killed in these covert drone strikes. Besides loss of life, many people in the drone affected areas had lost their houses and shops in these covert drone strikes. It has been established by many independent research organizations that the covert drone operations cause the civilian casualties, but CIA and the US government has rejected this notion, and the US presidency has shrouded the CIA’s covert drone operations, killing civilians, from congress and courts. The news agencies in the US are given orders, not to show the civilian casualties as it could cause hatred of American people against the US government. This is so because the US government does not want to lose support of its people.

Sudden Justice

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Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190202599
Total Pages : 417 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (92 download)

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Book Synopsis Sudden Justice by : Chris Woods (Journalist)

Download or read book Sudden Justice written by Chris Woods (Journalist) and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2015 with total page 417 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Sudden Justice explores the secretive history of the United States' use of armed drones and their key role not only on today's battlefields, but also in a covert targeted killng project that has led to the deaths of thousands.

Drone Strikes in Pakistan

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 46 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (878 download)

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Book Synopsis Drone Strikes in Pakistan by : Larry Lewis

Download or read book Drone Strikes in Pakistan written by Larry Lewis and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 46 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The U.S. government has described its drone campaign in Pakistan and elsewhere as causing minimal civilian casualties. However, available data-open source data on Pakistan drone strikes, as well as data on air operations in Afghanistan, including drone operations-points to higher casualty numbers than suggested in official statements. Besides their importance to U.S. ethical principles regarding the conduct of war, civilian casualties from U.S. operations also affect national security, fueling threats to the U.S. while simultaneously limiting freedom of action and complicating relations with other nations. CNA Corporation analyzed publically available data to determine the likelihood of civilian harm per strike in the drone campaign in Pakistan. From this data, we see that the U.S. has improved its ability to reduce civilian casualties during drone strikes in Pakistan over the past several years, as measured in the percentage of strikes causing civilian casualties and the number of civilian casualties occurring per incident. However, there remains room for improvement. An assessment process could improve this rate, and such a process is briefly outlined at the end of this paper. Overall, it is both possible and worthwhile for the U.S. to conduct an independent assessment of civilian casualties resulting from drone strikes in Pakistan and elsewhere. This assessment could be provided to the legislative and executive branches to improve transparency and permit proper oversight of these operations. This would also help ensure that official U.S. statements reflect operational realities, helping to guard the credibility and reputation of the U.S. In addition, a process could be put into place to respond to drone-strike civilian casualties with consequence management actions, including amends, when they occur from such strikes. This practice could adapt successful U.S. measures taken in Afghanistan, and would be consistent with recent legislation governing military operations. Collectively, an assessment process for civilian harm, coupled with measures to address such harm when it is caused, would demonstrate the U.S. concern for civilians while also reducing grievances that can exacerbate threats to the U.S. in the longer term. These initiatives would help the U.S. demonstrate its stated commitment to the responsible use of force and to do all it can to minimize civilian harm in its operations.

An Examination of the Collateral Psychological and Political Damage of Drone Warfare in the Fata Region of Pakistan

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Author :
Publisher : CreateSpace
ISBN 13 : 9781505367966
Total Pages : 90 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (679 download)

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Book Synopsis An Examination of the Collateral Psychological and Political Damage of Drone Warfare in the Fata Region of Pakistan by : Naval Postgraduate Naval Postgraduate School

Download or read book An Examination of the Collateral Psychological and Political Damage of Drone Warfare in the Fata Region of Pakistan written by Naval Postgraduate Naval Postgraduate School and published by CreateSpace. This book was released on 2014-12-04 with total page 90 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This research will examine the collateral psychological and political damage of the United States drone warfare program on Pakistani society in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), to determine if this is an effective, proactive homeland defense tactic. The use of drone aircraft by the United States government has increased worldwide since this evolving technology was first utilized in 2001. Each drone strike impacts militants, noncombatants, and ordinary civilians. The potential for collateral damage and civilian casualties may overshadow the tactical gain of even successful drone strikes by inspiring radicalization, and creating recruiting opportunities for militants. The findings of this research will recommend an alternative framework from which to evaluate the effectiveness of drone warfare based on the collateral psychological and political impact on society in this region. Traditional studies of drone warfare have tended to analyze from a tactical perspective. The examination of drone warfare, based on the damage done to the psychological experiences and political attitudes of FATA residents who may turn against the U.S., provides policy makers with the ability to better assess the impact of drone strikes on communities, and determine the optimal situation to leverage this lethal tactic, while minimizing negative outcomes.

The War Against Civilians

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Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3030124061
Total Pages : 281 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (31 download)

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Book Synopsis The War Against Civilians by : Vasja Badalič

Download or read book The War Against Civilians written by Vasja Badalič and published by Springer. This book was released on 2019-04-16 with total page 281 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides a critical analysis of how the “war on terror” affected the civilian population in Afghanistan and Pakistan. This “forgotten war,” which started in 2001 with the US-led invasion of Afghanistan, has seen more than 212,000 people killed in war-related incidents. Whilst most of the news media shifted their attention to other conflict zones, this war rages on. Badalič has amassed a vast amount of data on the civilian victims of war from both sides of the Durand line, the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. He conducted interviews in Peshawar, Quetta, Islamabad, Kabul, Jalalabad, and many other cities and villages from 2008 to 2017. His data is mostly drawn from those extensive conversations held with civilian victims of war, Afghan and Pakistani officials, human-rights activists and members of the insurgency. The book is divided into three parts. The first examines the impact the US-led coalition, Afghan security forces and paramilitary groups had on civilians, with methods of combat such as drone strikes and kill-or-capture missions. The second part focuses on civilian victims of abuses of power by Pakistani security forces, including arbitrary detentions and forced disappearances. In the final part, Badalič explores the impact of unlawful practices used by the armed insurgency – the Afghan Taliban. Overall, the book seeks to tell the story of the civilian victims of the “War on Terror".

Terrorism and the US Drone Attacks in Pakistan

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Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1000372332
Total Pages : 176 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (3 download)

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Book Synopsis Terrorism and the US Drone Attacks in Pakistan by : Imdad Ullah

Download or read book Terrorism and the US Drone Attacks in Pakistan written by Imdad Ullah and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2021-03-29 with total page 176 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book analyses the US drone attacks against terrorists in Pakistan to assess whether the ‘pre-emptive’ use of combat drones to kill terrorists is ever legally justified. Exploring the doctrinal discourse of pre-emption vis-à-vis the US drone attacks against terrorists in Pakistan, the book shows that the debate surrounding this discourse encapsulates crucial tensions between the permission and limits of the right of self-defence. Drawing from the long history of God-given and man-made laws of war, this book employs positivism as a legal frame to explore and explain the doctrine of pre-emption and analyses the doctrine of the state’s rights to self-defence as it stretches into pre-emptive or preventive use of force. The book investigates why the US chose the recourse to pre-emption through the use of combat drones in the ‘war on terror’ and whether there is a potential future for the pre-emption of terrorism through combat drones. The author argues that the policy to ‘kill first’ is easy to adopt; however, any disregard for the web of legal requirements surrounding the policy has the potential to undercut the legal claims of an armed act. The book enables the framing and analysis of such controversies in legal terms as opposed to a choice between law and policy. An examination of the legal dilemma concerning drone warfare, this book will be of interest to academics in the fields of international relations, Asian politics, South Asian studies, and security studies, in particular, global security law, new wars, and emerging technologies of warfare.

U.S. Strategy for Pakistan and Afghanistan

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Publisher : Council on Foreign Relations
ISBN 13 : 0876094795
Total Pages : 83 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (76 download)

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Book Synopsis U.S. Strategy for Pakistan and Afghanistan by : Richard Lee Armitage

Download or read book U.S. Strategy for Pakistan and Afghanistan written by Richard Lee Armitage and published by Council on Foreign Relations. This book was released on 2010 with total page 83 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Council on Foreign Relations sponsors Independent Task Forces to assess issues of current and critical importance to U.S. foreign policy and provide policymakers with concrete judgments and recommendations. Diverse in backgrounds and perspectives, Task Force members aim to reach a meaningful consensus on policy through private and non-partisan deliberations. Once launched, Task Forces are independent of CFR and solely responsible for the content of their reports. Task Force members are asked to join a consensus signifying that they endorse "the general policy thrust and judgments reached by the group, though not necessarily every finding and recommendation." Each Task Force member also has the option of putting forward an additional or a dissenting view. Members' affiliations are listed for identification purposes only and do not imply institutional endorsement. Task Force observers participate in discussions, but are not asked to join the consensus. --Book Jacket.

Living Under Drones

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Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 165 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (811 download)

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Book Synopsis Living Under Drones by :

Download or read book Living Under Drones written by and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page 165 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "In the United States, the dominant narrative about the use of drones in Pakistan is of a surgically precise and effective tool that makes the US safer by enabling "targeted killing" of terrorists, with minimal downsides or collateral impacts. This narrative is false. Following nine months of intensive research-- including two investigations in Pakistan, more than 130 interviews with victims, witnesses, and experts, and review of thousands of pages of documentation and media reporting-- this report presents evidence of the damaging and counterproductive effects of current US drone strike policies. Based on extensive interviews with Pakistanis living in the regions directly affected, as well as humanitarian and medical workers, this report provides new and firsthand testimony about the negative impacts US policies are having on the civilians living under drones."--Exec. sum.

Pakistan Under Siege

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Publisher : Brookings Institution Press
ISBN 13 : 0815729464
Total Pages : 174 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (157 download)

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Book Synopsis Pakistan Under Siege by : Madiha Afzal

Download or read book Pakistan Under Siege written by Madiha Afzal and published by Brookings Institution Press. This book was released on 2018-01-02 with total page 174 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Over the last fifteen years, Pakistan has come to be defined exclusively in terms of its struggle with terror. But are ordinary Pakistanis extremists? And what explains how Pakistanis think? Much of the current work on extremism in Pakistan tends to study extremist trends in the country from a detached position—a top-down security perspective, that renders a one-dimensional picture of what is at its heart a complex, richly textured country of 200 million people. In this book, using rigorous analysis of survey data, in-depth interviews in schools and universities in Pakistan, historical narrative reporting, and her own intuitive understanding of the country, Madiha Afzal gives the full picture of Pakistan’s relationship with extremism. The author lays out Pakistanis’ own views on terrorist groups, on jihad, on religious minorities and non-Muslims, on America, and on their place in the world. The views are not radical at first glance, but are riddled with conspiracy theories. Afzal explains how the two pillars that define the Pakistani state—Islam and a paranoia about India—have led to a regressive form of Islamization in Pakistan’s narratives, laws, and curricula. These, in turn, have shaped its citizens’ attitudes. Afzal traces this outlook to Pakistan’s unique and tortured birth. She examines the rhetoric and the strategic actions of three actors in Pakistani politics—the military, the civilian governments, and the Islamist parties—and their relationships with militant groups. She shows how regressive Pakistani laws instituted in the 1980s worsened citizen attitudes and led to vigilante and mob violence. The author also explains that the educational regime has become a vital element in shaping citizens’ thinking. How many years one attends school, whether the school is public, private, or a madrassa, and what curricula is followed all affect Pakistanis’ attitudes about terrorism and the rest of the world. In the end, Afzal suggests how this beleaguered nation—one with seemingly insurmountable problems in governance and education—can change course.

Bush's Wars

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Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0199831882
Total Pages : 312 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (998 download)

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Book Synopsis Bush's Wars by : Terry H. Anderson

Download or read book Bush's Wars written by Terry H. Anderson and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2011-07-01 with total page 312 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From journalistic accounts like Fiasco and Imperial Life in the Emerald City to insider memoirs like Jawbreaker and Three Cups of Tea, the books about America's wars in Iraq and Afghanistan could fill a library. But each explores a narrow slice of a whole: two wars launched by a single president as part of a single foreign policy. Now noted historian Terry Anderson examines them together, in a single comprehensive overview. Shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, President George W. Bush told advisor Karl Rove, "I am here for a reason, and this is how we're going to be judged." Anderson provides this judgment in this sweeping, authoritative account of Bush's War on Terror and his twin interventions. He begins with historical surveys of Iraq and Afghanistan-known respectively as "the improbable country" and "the graveyard of empires," and he examines US policies toward those and other nations in the Middle East from the 1970s to 2000. Then Anderson focuses on the Bush Administration, carrying us through such events as the terrorist's attacks of 9/11, the invasion of Afghanistan and the siege of Tora Bora, the "Axis of Evil" speech, the invasion of Iraq and capture of Baghdad, and the eruption of insurgency in Iraq. He ranges from RPGs slamming into Abrams tanks to cabinet meetings, vividly portraying both soldiers in the field and such policymakers as Dick Cheney and Condoleezza Rice. Anderson describes the counter-insurgency strategy embodied by the "surge" in Iraq, and the simultaneous revival of the Taliban. He concludes with an assessment of the prosecution of the wars in the first years of Barack Obama's presidency. Carefully researched and briskly narrated, Bush's Wars provides the single-volume balanced history that we have waited for. This new paperback edition takes the story through the first Obama term, covering our exit from Iraq and the ongoing drawdown in Afghanistan.

Living Under Drones

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Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 165 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (811 download)

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Book Synopsis Living Under Drones by :

Download or read book Living Under Drones written by and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page 165 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "In the United States, the dominant narrative about the use of drones in Pakistan is of a surgically precise and effective tool that makes the US safer by enabling "targeted killing" of terrorists, with minimal downsides or collateral impacts. This narrative is false. Following nine months of intensive research-- including two investigations in Pakistan, more than 130 interviews with victims, witnesses, and experts, and review of thousands of pages of documentation and media reporting-- this report presents evidence of the damaging and counterproductive effects of current US drone strike policies. Based on extensive interviews with Pakistanis living in the regions directly affected, as well as humanitarian and medical workers, this report provides new and firsthand testimony about the negative impacts US policies are having on the civilians living under drones"--Executive summary.

Death by Drone

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Author :
Publisher : Open Society Institute
ISBN 13 : 9781940983370
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (833 download)

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Book Synopsis Death by Drone by : Amrit Singh

Download or read book Death by Drone written by Amrit Singh and published by Open Society Institute. This book was released on 2015-01-01 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In 2013, President Obama promised that before any U.S. drone strike, "there must be near-certainty that no civilians will be killed or injured." Death by Drone questions whether he has kept that promise. The report casts serious doubt on whether the United States' "near-certainty" standard is being met on the ground, and whether the U.S. is complying with international law. The nine case studies documented in this report provide credible evidence that U.S. airstrikes have killed and injured Yemeni civilians. These incidents include a drone strike that killed 12 people, including a pregnant woman and three children, and another in which the U.S. struck a house containing 19 people, including women and children.

Drone Strike–Analyzing the Impacts of Targeted Killing

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Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030911195
Total Pages : 412 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (39 download)

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Book Synopsis Drone Strike–Analyzing the Impacts of Targeted Killing by : Mitt Regan

Download or read book Drone Strike–Analyzing the Impacts of Targeted Killing written by Mitt Regan and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2022-03-31 with total page 412 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The intense debate over US targeted drone strikes outside war zones has been limited by the failure to review and assess a considerable body of quantitative research and qualitative material on the impacts of such strikes on terrorist groups and civilians. This book fills an important gap in the literature by conducting a careful and rigorous review of such evidence. It argues that decisions about the use of targeted strikes as a counterterrorism instrument, as well as legal and ethical evaluations of such use, must be informed by our best understanding of the insights that empirical evidence can provide on the effectiveness of strikes and the costs they impose on populations where they occur.

Predators

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Publisher : Potomac Books, Inc.
ISBN 13 : 1612346189
Total Pages : 365 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (123 download)

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Book Synopsis Predators by : Brian Glyn Williams

Download or read book Predators written by Brian Glyn Williams and published by Potomac Books, Inc.. This book was released on 2013 with total page 365 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Predators is a riveting introduction to the murky world of Predator and Reaper drones, the CIAas and U.S. militaryas most effective and controversial killing tools. Brian Glyn Williams combines policy analysis with the human drama of the spies, terrorists, insurgents, and innocent tribal peoples who have been killed in the covert operationthe CIAas largest assassination campaign since the Vietnam War erabeing waged in Pakistanas tribal regions via remote control aircraft known as drones, or unmanned aerial vehicles. Having traveled extensively in the Pashtun tribal areas while working for the U.S. military and the CIA, Williams explores in detail of the new technology of airborne assassinations. From miniature Scorpion missiles designed to kill terrorists while avoiding civilian collateral damageA to prathrais, the cigarette lightersize homing beacons spies plant on their unsuspecting targets to direct drone missiles to them, the author describes the drone arsenal in full. Evaluating the ethics of targeted killings and drone technology, Williams covers more than a hundred drone strikes, analyzing the number of slain civilians versus the number of terrorists killed to address the claims of antidrone activists. In examining the future of drone warfare, he reveals that the U.S. military is already building more unmanned than manned aerial vehicles. Predators helps us weigh the pros and cons of the drone program so that we can decide whether it is a vital strategic asset, a frenemy, A or a little of both.

The Effectiveness of Drone Strikes in Counterinsurgency and Counterterrorism Campaigns

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Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 80 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis The Effectiveness of Drone Strikes in Counterinsurgency and Counterterrorism Campaigns by : James Igoe Walsh

Download or read book The Effectiveness of Drone Strikes in Counterinsurgency and Counterterrorism Campaigns written by James Igoe Walsh and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 80 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The United States increasingly relies on unmanned aerial vehicles to target insurgent and terrorist groups around the world. This monograph analyzes the available research and evidence that assesses the political and military consequences of drone strikes. It is not clear if drone strikes have degraded their targets, or that they kill enough civilians to create sizable public backlashes against the United States. Drones are a politically and militarily attractive way to counter insurgents and terrorists, but, paradoxically, this may lead to their use in situations where they are less likely to be effective and where there is difficulty in predicting the consequences.