Evaluating The Local Economywide Impacts Of Irrigation Projects

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Evaluating the local economywide impacts of irrigation projects: Feed the future in Tanzania

Author : Mateusz Filipski
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 28 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Evaluating the local economywide impacts of irrigation projects: Feed the future in Tanzania by : Mateusz Filipski

Download or read book Evaluating the local economywide impacts of irrigation projects: Feed the future in Tanzania written by Mateusz Filipski and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2013-03-04 with total page 28 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Despite years of development interventions, agricultural productivity in Africa south of the Sahara still trails far behind all other continents, leaving many rural populations in dire poverty. This suggests that our understanding of the impacts of agricultural development projects is still imperfect; perfecting it is likely to be a crucial step in achieving development. Projects that raise agricultural productivity, in addition to directly affecting farmers, can have an impact on local prices, wages, and rents, especially in rural areas of Africa, which tend to be less-than-perfectly integrated with outside markets. Price changes, in turn, transmit project impacts to others within the local economy. This paper presents the findings of a local economywide impact evaluation of Feed the Future irrigation projects in the Morogoro region of Tanzania, using a local economy-wide impact evaluation (LEWIE) simulation model. The findings indicate that these irrigation projects can generate important indirect impacts within the region. The structure of local markets, as well as labor and land availability, shapes project spillovers in ways that point to future directions for development assistance in the region.

Beyond Experiments in Development Economics

Author : J. Edward Taylor
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0198707878
Total Pages : 337 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (987 download)

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Book Synopsis Beyond Experiments in Development Economics by : J. Edward Taylor

Download or read book Beyond Experiments in Development Economics written by J. Edward Taylor and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2014 with total page 337 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides researchers, students, and practitioners with a methodology to evaluate the impacts of a wide diversity of development projects and policies on local economies. Projects and policies often create spillovers within project areas. LEWIE uses simulation methods to quantify these spillovers. It has become a complement to randomized control trials (RCTs), as governments and donors become interested in documenting impacts beyond the treated, comparing the likely impacts of alternative interventions, and designing complementary interventions to influence program and policy impacts. It is also a tool for impact evaluation where RCTs are not feasible. Chapters 1-4 motivate and present the basics of impact simulation, including how to design a LEWIE model, how to estimate the model, and how to obtain the necessary data. The remaining chapters provide a diversity of interesting real-world applications and extensions of the basic models. The applications include evaluations of the impacts of cash transfers for the poor, ecotourism, global food-price shocks, irrigation projects, migration, and corruption. Each chapter provide readers with the tools they need to conduct their own local economy-wide impact evaluations. All models and data used in this book are available on-line.

Evaluating the Local Economywide Impacts of Irrigation Projects

Author : Mateusz Filipski
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 28 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Evaluating the Local Economywide Impacts of Irrigation Projects by : Mateusz Filipski

Download or read book Evaluating the Local Economywide Impacts of Irrigation Projects written by Mateusz Filipski and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2013-03-04 with total page 28 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Despite years of development interventions, agricultural productivity in Africa south of the Sahara still trails far behind all other continents, leaving many rural populations in dire poverty. This suggests that our understanding of the impacts of agricultural development projects is still imperfect; perfecting it is likely to be a crucial step in achieving development. Projects that raise agricultural productivity, in addition to directly affecting farmers, can have an impact on local prices, wages, and rents, especially in rural areas of Africa, which tend to be less-than-perfectly integrated with outside markets. Price changes, in turn, transmit project impacts to others within the local economy. This paper presents the findings of a local economywide impact evaluation of Feed the Future irrigation projects in the Morogoro region of Tanzania, using a local economy-wide impact evaluation (LEWIE) simulation model. The findings indicate that these irrigation projects can generate important indirect impacts within the region. The structure of local markets, as well as labor and land availability, shapes project spillovers in ways that point to future directions for development assistance in the region.

An Evaluation of the Effect of the Carlsbad Irrigation Project on the Local and National Economy

Author : United States. Bureau of Reclamation
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 20 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (772 download)

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Book Synopsis An Evaluation of the Effect of the Carlsbad Irrigation Project on the Local and National Economy by : United States. Bureau of Reclamation

Download or read book An Evaluation of the Effect of the Carlsbad Irrigation Project on the Local and National Economy written by United States. Bureau of Reclamation and published by . This book was released on 1951 with total page 20 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Local economy-wide impact evaluation of the United Republic of Tanzania’s Productive Social Safety Nets

Author : Daidone, S., Kagin, J., Taylor J. E.
Publisher : Food & Agriculture Org.
ISBN 13 : 9251377294
Total Pages : 55 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (513 download)

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Book Synopsis Local economy-wide impact evaluation of the United Republic of Tanzania’s Productive Social Safety Nets by : Daidone, S., Kagin, J., Taylor J. E.

Download or read book Local economy-wide impact evaluation of the United Republic of Tanzania’s Productive Social Safety Nets written by Daidone, S., Kagin, J., Taylor J. E. and published by Food & Agriculture Org.. This book was released on 2023-03-14 with total page 55 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: To reduce extreme poverty and break its intergenerational transmission, in 2012 the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania initiated the Productive Social Safety Net (PSSN) – the flagship social protection programme implemented by the Tanzania Social Action Fund (TASAF). The PSSN is based on a set of integrated interventions targeted for the poorest and most vulnerable households: i) a labour-intensive public works (PW) programme; ii) conditional cash transfers (CCTs); iii) a Livelihood Enhancement (LE) component providing support to households' economic driven interventions (such as community savings and investments); and iv) Targeted Infrastructure, supporting development and rehabilitation of social infrastructures under education, health and water sectors. During the period 2013–2019, TASAF vastly scaled up the programme in five waves, enrolling 1.1 million households and 5.1 million individuals in 9 960 communities, representing approximately 10.5 percent of the total population. A randomized impact evaluation was embedded within the scaled-up design of the PSSN, which found that even after a short period of implementation (2015–2017), the PSSN achieved several objectives including: increased consumption and food security, investment in better living conditions and human capital accumulation. To complement the findings of the official PSSN impact evaluation, in this study we analyse the indirect effects of the PSSN on the overall local economy.

Agricultural Trade

Author : David Laborde
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 32 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Agricultural Trade by : David Laborde

Download or read book Agricultural Trade written by David Laborde and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2013-03-14 with total page 32 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this paper, we provide an overview of the agricultural trade negotiations within the current World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations and we show that including agriculture in the Doha Development Agenda talks is important both economically and politically, although the political resistance to reform is particularly strong in this sector. While agriculture accounts for less than 10 percent of merchandise trade, high and variable agricultural distortions appear to cause the majority of the cost of distortions to global merchandise trade. Within agriculture, most of the costs appear to arise from trade barriers levied on imports, since these barriers tend to be high, variable across time and over products, and levied by a wide range of countries. The negotiations face a need for balance between discipline in reducing tariffshence creating the market access gains that are central to the negotiationsand flexibility in managing political pressures. While the approach of providing flexibility on a certain percentage of tariff lines is seriously flawed, the proposed modalities still appear to provide worthwhile market access. Better ways appear to be needed to deal with developing countries concerns about food price volatility while reducing the collective-action problems resulting from price insulation.

A Regional Computable General Equilibrium Model for Honduras

Author : Samuel Morley
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 36 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis A Regional Computable General Equilibrium Model for Honduras by : Samuel Morley

Download or read book A Regional Computable General Equilibrium Model for Honduras written by Samuel Morley and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2013-03-15 with total page 36 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Agricultural Mechanization in Ghana

Author : Nazaire Houssou
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 24 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Agricultural Mechanization in Ghana by : Nazaire Houssou

Download or read book Agricultural Mechanization in Ghana written by Nazaire Houssou and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2013-03-29 with total page 24 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since 2007, the government of Ghana has been providing subsidized agricultural machines to private enterprises established as Agricultural Mechanization Services Enterprise Centers (AMSEC) to scale up tractor-hire services to smallholder farmers. Although farmers demand for mechanization has increased in recent years, most of this demand concentrates on land preparation (plowing) service. Using the firm investment model and recent data, this paper quantitatively assesses whether AMSEC as a private enterprise is a viable business model attractive to private investors. Even though the intention of the government is to promote private sector-led mechanization, findings suggest that the AMSEC model is unlikely to be a profitable business model attractive to private investors even with the current level of subsidy. The low tractor utilization rate as a result of low operational scale is the most important constraint to the intertemporal profitability of tractor-hire services. Our findings further support the argument of Pingali, Bigot, and Binswanger (1987), who indicated that mechanization service centers supported through governments heavy subsidy are not a policy option anywhere in the world, even in the current situation in Ghana. Although the tractor rental service market is a proper way of mechanizing agriculture in a smallholder-dominated agricultural economy such as Ghana, this paper concludes that the development of such a market depends crucially on a number of factors, including increased tractor use through migration across the two very different rainfall zones (north and south), increased tractor use through multiple tasks, and use of low-cost tractors. The government can play an important role in facilitating the development of a tractor service market; however, the successful development of such a market depends on the incentive and innovation of the private sector, including farmers who want to own tractors as part of their business portfolio, traders who know how to bring in affordable tractors and expand the market, and manufacturers in exporting countries who want to seek a long-term potential market opportunity in Ghana and in other west African countries.

Exchange Rate Policy and Devaluation in Malawi

Author : Karl Pauw
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 36 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Exchange Rate Policy and Devaluation in Malawi by : Karl Pauw

Download or read book Exchange Rate Policy and Devaluation in Malawi written by Karl Pauw and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2013-03-19 with total page 36 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Malawian economy has in recent months been plagued by a severe foreign exchange crisis, fueled in part by a steadily rising import bill, sharp successive declines in tobacco export prices, the suspension of direct government budget support from several development partners in 2011, and an all-time low in international investor confidence. Up until the regime change in April 2012, the government resisted calls for a devaluation, which at the time resulted in a thriving parallel foreign exchange market. At its peak, the Malawi kwacha was trading at a premium of up to 100 percent in this secondary market. Economic theory shows that such a situation has adverse implications for an economy in terms of the balance-of-payments adjustment process and income distribution in the economy. Those with access to foreign exchange at the official rate are able to extract rents by selling foreign currency or imported goods at inflated prices. Imports sold domestically are then often valued at the parallel exchange rate rather than the official rate, with the parallel market rate serving as the only adjustment mechanism through which equilibrium can be restored in the balance of payments. This has a significant impact on domestic inflation to the detriment of consumers, while those with preferential access to foreign exchange at the official rate capture large rents. A simulation exercise using an economywide model for Malawi considers how the economy responds to different types of foreign exchange shocks under fixed and flexible exchange rate regimes. While the foreign exchange crisis in itself has severe negative implications for the economy, our results suggest that the economy responds much better to these types of shocks under a flexible exchange rate regime (that is, devaluations or a free-floating currency). Our main simulation shows that under the latter policy, gross domestic product growth, although negative, is 1.5 percentage points higher than under a fixed exchange rate policy. Similarly, poverty is 6.9 percentage points lower. A relaxation of the exchange rate policy, however, is only part of the solution; in the longer run, good governance and sound macroeconomic policy that is conducive to growth are needed to address the underlying structural problems in the economy that also contribute to foreign exchange shortages.

A Partial Equilibrium Model of the Malawi Maize Commodity Market

Author : Mariam A. T. J. Mapila
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 40 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis A Partial Equilibrium Model of the Malawi Maize Commodity Market by : Mariam A. T. J. Mapila

Download or read book A Partial Equilibrium Model of the Malawi Maize Commodity Market written by Mariam A. T. J. Mapila and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2013-03-29 with total page 40 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This paper presents a model of the Malawi maize commodity market that is developed for use as a policy analysis tool. The model captures national and local maize market dynamics and the linkages existing within the maize market in the country. This research has been undertaken in order to provide policy makers with a robust tool which can be used to simulate the impact of policy changes on markets and households. Such a tool ensures the availability of evidence for informing food and agricultural policies. The model is a multiequation partial equilibrium model of the national maize market in Malawi. It is developed and linked in a top-down unidirectional manner to the local maize economy via a price linkage equation. A nonbehavioral arithmetic microaccounting approach is used to estimate rural household incomes that are linked to the local economy, through which macroeconomic-level maize price changes transmit. The model can be used as a tool for analyzing the impacts of macroeconomic and agricultural policy changes on the maize industry as well as on rural households that rely on maize. The novelty of the model is that it takes into account the interrelationships between farm/household, local-economy, and national maize market prices, as well as economic theory and existing empirical evidence, to build a framework that is capable of linking to the macroeconomy rural subsistence households that are traditionally deemed to have few or no backward and forward linkages.

Beyond Experiments in Development Economics

Author : J. Edward Taylor
Publisher : Oxford University Press, USA
ISBN 13 : 0198707886
Total Pages : 337 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (987 download)

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Book Synopsis Beyond Experiments in Development Economics by : J. Edward Taylor

Download or read book Beyond Experiments in Development Economics written by J. Edward Taylor and published by Oxford University Press, USA. This book was released on 2014 with total page 337 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Provides readers with a methodology to evaluate the impacts of a wide diversity of development projects and policies on local economies, together with a diversity of applications of these tools-from poverty programs to global price shocks, irrigation projects, eco-tourism, migration, production subsidies, and government corruption.

Reverse-Share-Tenancy and Marshallian Inefficiency

Author : Hosaena Ghebru Hagos
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 48 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Reverse-Share-Tenancy and Marshallian Inefficiency by : Hosaena Ghebru Hagos

Download or read book Reverse-Share-Tenancy and Marshallian Inefficiency written by Hosaena Ghebru Hagos and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2013-05-17 with total page 48 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: While there are ample empirical studies that claim the potential disincentive effects of sharecropping arrangements, the existing literature is shallow in explaining why share tenancy contracts are prevalent and diffusing in many developing countries. Using a unique tenant-landlord matched dataset from the Tigray region of Ethiopia, we are able to show how the tenants strategic response to the varying economic and tenure-security status of the landlords can explain sharecroppers productivity differentials. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to use tenantlandlord matched data that accounts for both the supply (landlord) and demand (tenant) side characteristics in analyzing sharecroppers level of effort and productivity. The study reveals that sharecroppers yields are significantly lower on plots leased from landlords who are non-kin, who are female, who have lower income-generating opportunity, and who are tenure insecure than on plots leased from landlords with the opposite characteristics. While, on aggregate, the results show no significant efficiency loss on kin-operated sharecropped plots, more decomposed analyses indicate strong evidence of Marshallian inefficiency on kin-operated plots leased from landlords with weaker bargaining power and higher tenure insecurity. This study thus shows how failure to control for the heterogeneity of landowners characteristics can explain the lack of clarity in the existing empirical literature on the extent of moral hazard problems in sharecropping contracts.

The Impact of Irrigation on Nutrition, Health, and Gender

Author : Laia Domenech
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 28 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis The Impact of Irrigation on Nutrition, Health, and Gender by : Laia Domenech

Download or read book The Impact of Irrigation on Nutrition, Health, and Gender written by Laia Domenech and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2013-04-11 with total page 28 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Agriculture in Africa south of the Sahara (SSA) is still largely rainfed. SSA also exhibits the lowest crop yields for major staples in the world, largely due to low use of irrigation and fertilizer. Rainfed agriculture poses growing production risks with increased climate variability and change. At the same time, smallholder irrigation in the region developed rapidly over the past decade, albeit starting from very low levels. In addition to largely demand-driven irrigation development by smallholders, there is a significant push by donors for large-scale irrigation development, as well as some push for smallholder irrigation. There has also been a long-standing debate about whether irrigation in SSA should be large scale or small scale to achieve its potential. However, given the potentially high rewards, but also high possibility of failure, the assessment of irrigation potential must go beyond large scale versus small scale to integrate concerns regarding environmental sustainability, resource use efficiency, nutrition and health impacts, and womens empowerment. The hypothesis underlying this review paper is that how irrigation gets deployed in SSA will be decisive not only for environmental sustainability (such as deciding remaining forest cover in the region) and poverty reduction, but also for health, nutrition, and gender outcomes in the region. The focus of this paper is on the health, nutrition, and gender linkage. We find that to date, few studies have analyzed the impact of irrigation interventions on nutrition, health, and womens empowerment, despite the large potential of irrigation to affect these important variables. Irrigation interventions may have differential effects on different members in the household and in the community, such as irrigators, non-irrigators, children, and women. Measuring and understanding such differences, followed by improving design and implementation to maximize gender, health, and nutrition outcomes, could transform irrigation programs from focusing solely on increased food production toward becoming an integral component of poverty-reduction strategies.

Understanding the Role of Research in the Evolution of Fertilizer Policies in Malawi

Author : Michael Johnson
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 32 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Understanding the Role of Research in the Evolution of Fertilizer Policies in Malawi by : Michael Johnson

Download or read book Understanding the Role of Research in the Evolution of Fertilizer Policies in Malawi written by Michael Johnson and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2013-04-25 with total page 32 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This study examines the role of research in agricultural policy making in Malawi at a time when the Africa Union and the New Partnership for Africas Development have been seeking to promote greater evidenced-based decision making in agriculture. Drawing on both theory and actual past experiences documented in the literature, results are intended to improve our understanding of the extent to which research has played any role in influencing policy change in Malawi. This is done in the context of the evolution of the countrys fertilizer subsidy policies. Results point to some general lessons. First, strengthening the Ministry of Agricultures capacity for policy analysis and becoming more proactive in the policy process proved critical in the earlier years of Malawis long history of fertilizer subsidies. Second, the governments experience of bargaining with donors may have actually strengthened its own ability to position and assert its legitimacy in shaping policies. Third, while research may have played a historically marginal role, researchers have been able to influence policy choices whenever a window of opportunity arose for technical inputsuch as at times of crisis. However, researchers would also benefit from engaging more with the policy debates and policymaking process. Finally, while the paper draws on existing theoretical frameworks to understand the role of research in the policy process more generally, a better framework still needs to be developed in describing the standard experiences and realities of the African agricultural policy landscape.

Walking the Nexus Talk

Author : Alessandro Flammini
Publisher : Food & Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO)
ISBN 13 : 9789251084878
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (848 download)

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Book Synopsis Walking the Nexus Talk by : Alessandro Flammini

Download or read book Walking the Nexus Talk written by Alessandro Flammini and published by Food & Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO). This book was released on 2014 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Due to global transformational trends, such as population growth, economic development and climate change, energy, water, land and human resources are increasingly under pressure to support societal development and to maintain necessary services. Decision makers need improved tools in order to be better informed about trade-offs and synergies between different development and management choices, and to help them identify options on how to sustainably manage resources. This report proposes a way to carry out a water-energy-food nexus assessment approach in order to: a) understand the interactions between water, energy and food systems in a given context, and b) evaluate the performance of a technical or policy intervention in this given context. The ultimate goal of the nexus assessment is to inform nexus related responses in terms of strategies, policy measures, planning and institutional set-up or interventions.

Combined effects and synergies between agricultural and social protection interventions:

Author : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Publisher : Food & Agriculture Org.
ISBN 13 : 9251095531
Total Pages : 163 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (51 download)

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Book Synopsis Combined effects and synergies between agricultural and social protection interventions: by : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Download or read book Combined effects and synergies between agricultural and social protection interventions: written by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and published by Food & Agriculture Org.. This book was released on 2018-10-22 with total page 163 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This publication identifies interactions between agricultural and social protection interventions and shows the positive impacts of combined programmes on income diversification, food security and poverty reduction.

Typology of Farm Households and Irrigation Systems

Author : Hiroyuki Takeshima
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 36 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Typology of Farm Households and Irrigation Systems by : Hiroyuki Takeshima

Download or read book Typology of Farm Households and Irrigation Systems written by Hiroyuki Takeshima and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2013-04-25 with total page 36 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Irrigation is considered an important factor for agriculture and food security. Knowledge gaps, however, still exist with regard to how farmers in Africa south of Sahara, including Nigeria, are using irrigation. Given the diverse agroecological and socioeconomic environment in countries like Nigeria, understanding the diverse patterns of irrigation use and their associations with household characteristics is important in designing how irrigation can contribute to the agricultural transformation. This report summarizes the typology of farm households and irrigators in Nigeria. We apply a cluster analysis method to the Living Standard Measurement Survey (LSMS)Integrated Survey on Agriculture data and various secondary data. We also compare the costs and inputs used across different irrigation crops, as reported in Nigeria. Findings indicate that the three major irrigation systems in Nigeria are (1) labor-intensive diverted stream irrigation of rice, (2) supplementary irrigation of coarse grains and legumes using groundwater, and (3) dry season irrigation of vegetables. Each crop is irrigated during a specific season and using a specific water source and irrigation system. Farmers choice of irrigation system tends to depend on many factors. For example, in the South, tractorization is often a necessary precondition for rice irrigation. In the North, intensive irrigation of rice and vegetables may make sense only if labor is cheap, whereas irrigation of sorghum and legumes is supplementary and may not affect farm households behaviors. Although more rigorous studies are needed in the future, observed patterns of irrigation use in Nigeria indicate that the policies aiming to raise agricultural productivity and to develop the value chains of key crops may need to be based on an understanding of why irrigation is used in specific ways in different systems and of what the key constraints in scaling up such systems in other locations are.