Complex Effects of Language Brokering Among Chinese Immigrant Families

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ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 216 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (15 download)

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Book Synopsis Complex Effects of Language Brokering Among Chinese Immigrant Families by : Yishan Shen

Download or read book Complex Effects of Language Brokering Among Chinese Immigrant Families written by Yishan Shen and published by . This book was released on 2016 with total page 216 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Children and adolescents in linguistic minority families, such as Chinese American families, often serve as language brokers; that is, they are the translators or interpreters for their parents who have limited English proficiency. Despite a growing number of scholarly investigations on language brokering, evidence regarding its developmental outcomes remains mixed. To disentangle the complex effects of language brokering, two separate but complementary studies were conducted. Specifically, Study 1 took a variable-centered approach and examined the mechanisms of the complex effects of language brokering frequency, while Study 2 took a person-centered approach and explored subgroups of language brokers based on language brokering feelings and identified predictors and outcomes of subgroup memberships (including a known subgroup of non-brokers). Participants were Chinese American adolescents (N = 252 for Study 1; N = 394 for Study 2 including non-brokers) residing in Northern California who were surveyed when they were in high school (T1; Mage = 17.0; SD = 0.73; 61% female) and again four years later (T2). In Study 1, it was found that frequent language brokering for mothers was associated with brokering-related maternal dependence, which was in turn simultaneously associated with both brokering-related mother-child mutual regard and mother-child role reversal across language brokers’ adolescence and emerging adulthood. In addition, the positive impact of frequent language brokering diminished when language brokers did not perceive warmth from their mothers’ parenting behaviors. In Study 2, two distinct subgroups of adolescent language brokers were identified using latent profile analyses based on language brokering feelings: efficacious brokers and burdened brokers. A key predictor that distinguished the two language broker groups was bilingual proficiency, such that those who were proficient in both English and Chinese were more likely to be efficacious brokers. Moreover, compared to non-brokers, efficacious brokers were not significantly affected by or even benefitted from translating, while burdened brokers’ parent-child relationships and psychosocial well-being were at risk due to brokering. Finally, the majority of adolescents remained in the same subgroups over time, and those who were burdened at both times and those who later became burdened showed poorer adjustment in emerging adulthood than other subgroups.

Language Brokering in Immigrant Families

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Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317289838
Total Pages : 315 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (172 download)

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Book Synopsis Language Brokering in Immigrant Families by : Robert S. Weisskirch

Download or read book Language Brokering in Immigrant Families written by Robert S. Weisskirch and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2017-03-27 with total page 315 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Language Brokering in Immigrant Families: Theories and Contexts brings together an international group of researchers to share their findings on language brokering—when immigrant children translate for their parents and other adults. Given the large amount of immigration occurring worldwide, it is important to understand how language brokering may support children’s and families’ acculturation to new countries. The chapter authors include overviews of the existing literature, insights from multiple disciplines, the potential benefits and drawbacks to language brokering, and the contexts that may influence children, adolescents, and emerging adults who language broker. With the latest findings, the authors theorize on how language brokering may function and the outcomes for those who do so.

Language Brokering Frequency, Feelings and Autonomy Support

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ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (974 download)

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Book Synopsis Language Brokering Frequency, Feelings and Autonomy Support by : Josephine Mei Hua

Download or read book Language Brokering Frequency, Feelings and Autonomy Support written by Josephine Mei Hua and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As families immigrate to a new country, adolescents often acculturate and learn the host-language more quickly than do their parents. As a result, many adolescents engage in language brokering (i.e., providing translation, interpretation, and communication mediation assistance) for their immigrant parents. This study aimed to disentangle the nature of multiple dimensions of language brokering within a community sample of 152 Chinese immigrant families residing in Western Canada. Specifically, I examined language brokering frequency as well as positive and negative feelings about language brokering as distinct constructs to better understand how they relate to one another and with adjustment. Applying self-determination theory, I also considered the role of autonomy-supportive contexts in moderating links between the various language brokering constructs and adjustment, with the expectation that language brokering would present less risk to adjustment in contexts high in autonomy support. A higher frequency of language brokering for both mothers and fathers predicted more intense feelings. Further, language brokering feelings were more predictive of adjustment than frequency. There was little evidence that brokering feelings moderated relations between language brokering frequency and adjustment. However, there was evidence that the absence of autonomy-supportive contexts was a risk for poorer adjustment, and that environments rich in autonomy support have the potential to mitigate risks associated with language brokering. The results are discussed with respect to unique adolescent experiences language brokering for mothers versus fathers, which further highlight the complex relations between language brokering and adjustment.

A Conditional Indirect Effect of Language Brokering on Adjustment Among Chinese and Korean American Adolescents

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 96 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (884 download)

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Book Synopsis A Conditional Indirect Effect of Language Brokering on Adjustment Among Chinese and Korean American Adolescents by : Yishan Shen

Download or read book A Conditional Indirect Effect of Language Brokering on Adjustment Among Chinese and Korean American Adolescents written by Yishan Shen and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 96 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Asian American adolescents, such as Chinese and Korean American adolescents, often language broker for their immigrant parents. This study examines how language brokering influences parent-child relationships and adolescents' psychological adjustment in Asian-American families. Using a two-wave sample of Chinese (n = 237; average age = 14.65, SD = .68) and Korean (n = 262; average age = 14.72, SD = .69) American adolescents, this study examined a culturally relevant conditional mechanism through which language brokering may contribute to lower levels of internalizing/externalizing problems. Results suggested that language brokering for the mother was associated with perceived maternal sacrifice, which was in turn associated with respect for the mother, which was eventually associated with lower levels of externalizing problems (but not internalizing problems) in the adolescents. Moreover, the indirect effect was conditional on the level of mother-child open communication. With a lower level of open communication, the indirect effect of language brokering on externalizing problems became stronger. Results indicate that interventions designed to reduce Asian American adolescent language brokers' externalizing problems can target their perception of parental sacrifice and their respect for parents, and that this approach may be especially effective for adolescents experiencing a low level of parent-child open communication. At the same time, for these families with low levels of parent-child open communication, encouraging more open communication may be an additional way to intervene.

Predicting Relations Between Child Language Brokering and Psychological Adjustment Within Immigrant Chinese Families

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ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (858 download)

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Book Synopsis Predicting Relations Between Child Language Brokering and Psychological Adjustment Within Immigrant Chinese Families by : Josephine Mei Hua

Download or read book Predicting Relations Between Child Language Brokering and Psychological Adjustment Within Immigrant Chinese Families written by Josephine Mei Hua and published by . This book was released on 2008 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Relations between language brokering and psychological adjustment were examined among 183 immigrant Chinese families residing in Canada. Adolescents (average age 15 years, 52% females) reported the frequencies with which they translated or interpreted materials for parents, with their materials varying in their levels of sensitivity. Mothers, fathers and adolescents also independently completed measures hypothesized to affect the emotional context in which language brokering takes place. and measures of individual and relational adjustment. Overall, more frequent language brokering appears to have stronger negative implications for adolescent adjustment and parent-child relationship quality, than for parents' adjustment. Material sensitivity, family obligation values, perceived parental psychological control, and parent versus friend orientation were found to moderate some of these relations. The findings are discussed in the context of the amount of pressure that is associated with language brokering, as well as vulnerabilities that may manifest from the parent-child role reversals inherent in language brokering.

Predicting Relations Between Child Language Brokering and Psychological Adjustment Within Immigrant Chinese Families

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ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (68 download)

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Book Synopsis Predicting Relations Between Child Language Brokering and Psychological Adjustment Within Immigrant Chinese Families by :

Download or read book Predicting Relations Between Child Language Brokering and Psychological Adjustment Within Immigrant Chinese Families written by and published by . This book was released on 2004 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Relations between language brokering and psychological adjustment were examined among 183 immigrant Chinese families residing in Canada. Adolescents (average age 15 years, 52% females) reported the frequencies with which they translated or interpreted materials for parents, with their materials varying in their levels of sensitivity. Mothers, fathers and adolescents also independently completed measures hypothesized to affect the emotional context in which language brokering takes place. and measures of individual and relational adjustment. Overall, more frequent language brokering appears to have stronger negative implications for adolescent adjustment and parent-child relationship quality, than for parents' adjustment. Material sensitivity, family obligation values, perceived parental psychological control, and parent versus friend orientation were found to moderate some of these relations. The findings are discussed in the context of the amount of pressure that is associated with language brokering, as well as vulnerabilities that may manifest from the parent-child role reversals inherent in language brokering.

Acculturation and Parent-child Relationships

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Publisher : Psychology Press
ISBN 13 : 9780805858723
Total Pages : 355 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (587 download)

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Book Synopsis Acculturation and Parent-child Relationships by : Marc H. Bornstein

Download or read book Acculturation and Parent-child Relationships written by Marc H. Bornstein and published by Psychology Press. This book was released on 2006 with total page 355 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Although many researchers agree on a general definition of acculturation, the conceptualization and measurement of acculturation remain controversial. To address the issues, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) sponsored a conference that brought together scholars who work to define and develop assessments of acculturation, and who study the impact of acculturation on families. The goals of the conference were to evaluate both the status of acculturation as a scientific construct and the roles of acculturation in parenting and human development. The goal of this volume is to advance the state-of-the-art. Acculturation and Parent-Child Relationships: Measurement and Development is a must-read for researchers, students, and policymakers concerned with cultural factors that affect the lives of parents and children.

Chinese Migration and Families-At-Risk

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Publisher : Cambridge Scholars Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1443884049
Total Pages : 260 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (438 download)

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Book Synopsis Chinese Migration and Families-At-Risk by : Ko Ling Chan

Download or read book Chinese Migration and Families-At-Risk written by Ko Ling Chan and published by Cambridge Scholars Publishing. This book was released on 2015-10-05 with total page 260 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Migration has played a significant role throughout Chinese history. Over the past few decades, the movements of the Chinese people, representing as they do a huge proportion of the world population, have attracted increasing attention both domestically and globally. Chinese migration is often a particularly complex phenomenon. On one hand, its characteristics have been shaped in many ways by numerous social, political and economic changes throughout the world, while, on the other, it has profound influences on the host countries and on China itself. Detailed investigation of the changing profiles of Chinese migrants, the reasons behind their movements, the challenges they face, and the strategies they use to cope with these problems will have significant implications for future policy making and practice. Chinese Migration and Families-At-Risk contributes to a better understanding of the various facets of Chinese migration. Its chapters address different concerns related to Chinese migration in the modern world, including the patterns and influences of internal migration within China; the issues related to migration from mainland China to Hong Kong, a special administrative region in China; and the history, features, and impact of Chinese migration to Western countries. Grounded in recent and contemporary research and scholarly inquiry, Chinese Migration and Families-At-Risk provides a comprehensive and critical review of the essential issues related to Chinese migrant families, and is undoubtedly a vital book for all who want to have a deeper understanding of the trends and current situation of Chinese migration.

Sign Language Brokering in Deaf-Hearing Families

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Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030671402
Total Pages : 356 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (36 download)

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Book Synopsis Sign Language Brokering in Deaf-Hearing Families by : Jemina Napier

Download or read book Sign Language Brokering in Deaf-Hearing Families written by Jemina Napier and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-04-15 with total page 356 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book details a study of sign language brokering that is carried out by deaf and hearing people who grow up using sign language at home with deaf parents, known as heritage signers. Child language brokering (CLB) is a form of interpreting carried out informally by children, typically for migrant families. The study of sign language brokering has been largely absent from the emerging body of CLB literature. The book gives an overview of the international, multi-stage, mixed-method study employing an online survey, semi-structured interviews and visual methods, to explore the lived experiences of deaf parents and heritage signers. It will be of interest to practitioners and academics working with signing deaf communities and those who wish to pursue professional practice with deaf communities, as well as academics and students in the fields of Applied Linguistics, Intercultural Communication, Interpreting Studies and the Social Science of Childhood.

First Language Maintenance in Recent Chinese Immigrant Families

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 466 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (446 download)

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Book Synopsis First Language Maintenance in Recent Chinese Immigrant Families by : Lihua Sun

Download or read book First Language Maintenance in Recent Chinese Immigrant Families written by Lihua Sun and published by . This book was released on 2000 with total page 466 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Language Interpretation and Communication

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Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1461590779
Total Pages : 424 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (615 download)

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Book Synopsis Language Interpretation and Communication by : D. Gerver

Download or read book Language Interpretation and Communication written by D. Gerver and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-03-09 with total page 424 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Language Interpretation and Communication: a NATO Symposium, was a multi-disciplinary meeting held from September 26 to October 1st 1977 at the Giorgio Cini Foundation on the Isle of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice. The Symposium explored both applied and theoretical aspects of conference interpre tation and of sign language interpretation. The Symposium was sponsored by the Scientific Affairs Division of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, and we would like to express our thanks to Dr. B. A. Bayrakter of the Scientific Affairs Division and to the Members of the NATO Special Programme Panel on Human Factors for their support. We would also like to thank Dr. F. Benvenutti and his colleagues at the University of Venice for their generous provision of facilities and hospitality for the opening session of the Symposium. Our thanks are also due to Dr. Ernesto Talentino and his colleagues at the Giorgio Cini Foundation who provided such excellent conference facilities and thus helped ensure the success of the meeting. Finally, we would like to express our appreciation and thanks to Becky Graham and Carol Blair for their invaluable contributions to the organization of the Symposium, to Ida Stevenson who prepared these proceedings for publication, and to Donald I. MacLeod who assisted with the final preparation of the manuscript.

Cross-Cultural Roots of Minority Child Development

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Publisher : Psychology Press
ISBN 13 : 1317598687
Total Pages : 453 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (175 download)

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Book Synopsis Cross-Cultural Roots of Minority Child Development by : Patricia M. Greenfield

Download or read book Cross-Cultural Roots of Minority Child Development written by Patricia M. Greenfield and published by Psychology Press. This book was released on 2014-12-05 with total page 453 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Cross-Cultural Roots of Minority Child Development was the first volume to analyze minority child development by comparing minority children to children in their ancestral countries, rather than to children in the host culture. It was a ground-breaking volume that not only offered an historical reconstruction of the cross-cultural roots of minority child development, but a new cultural-historical approach to developmental psychology as well. It was also one of the best attempts to develop guidelines for building models of development that are multicultural in perspective, thus challenging scholars across the behavioral sciences to give more credence to the impact of culture on development and socialization in their respective fields of work. A true classic, Cross-Cultural Roots of Minority Child Development will remain an essential resource for any scholar who is interested in minority child development and engages in cross-cultural research and multidisciplinary methodologies.

Brokering Belonging

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Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0199780056
Total Pages : 248 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (997 download)

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Book Synopsis Brokering Belonging by : Lisa Rose Mar

Download or read book Brokering Belonging written by Lisa Rose Mar and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2010-10-11 with total page 248 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Brokering Belonging traces several generations of Chinese "brokers," ethnic leaders who acted as intermediaries between the Chinese and Anglo worlds of Canada. Before World War II, most Chinese could not vote and many were illegal immigrants, so brokers played informal but necessary roles as representatives to the larger society. Lisa Rose Mar's study of Chinatown leaders shows how politics helped establish North America's first major group of illegal immigrants. Drawing on new Chinese language evidence, her dramatic account of political power struggles over representing Chinese Canadians offers a transnational immigrant view of history, centered in a Pacific World that joins Canada, the United States, China, and the British Empire.

Chinese Language Narration

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Publisher : John Benjamins Publishing
ISBN 13 : 9027271097
Total Pages : 223 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (272 download)

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Book Synopsis Chinese Language Narration by : Allyssa McCabe

Download or read book Chinese Language Narration written by Allyssa McCabe and published by John Benjamins Publishing. This book was released on 2013-11-15 with total page 223 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Chinese Language Narration: Culture, cognition, and emotion is a collection of papers presenting original research on narration in Mandarin, especially as it contrasts to what is known regarding narration in English. One chapter addresses dinner table conversation between Chinese immigrant parents and children in the United States compared to non-immigrant peers. Other chapters consider evaluation patterns in Mandarin versus English, referencing strategies, coherence patterns, socioeconomic differences among Taiwanese Mandarin-speaking children, and differences in narration due to Specific Language Impairment and schizophrenia. Several chapters address developmental concerns. Distinctive aspects of narration in Mandarin are linked to larger issues of autobiographical memory. Mandarin is spoken by far more people than any other language, yet narration in this language has received notably less attention than narration in Western languages. This collective effort is a critical addition to our understanding of cross-cultural similarities and differences in how people make sense of experiences through narrative.

Parental Roles and Relationships in Immigrant Families

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Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 331971399X
Total Pages : 281 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (197 download)

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Book Synopsis Parental Roles and Relationships in Immigrant Families by : Susan S. Chuang

Download or read book Parental Roles and Relationships in Immigrant Families written by Susan S. Chuang and published by Springer. This book was released on 2018-02-10 with total page 281 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This insightful volume presents important new findings about parenting and parent-child relationships in ethnic and racial minority immigrant families. Prominent scholars in diverse fields focus on families from a wide range of ethnicities settling in Canada, China, Israel, Italy, the Netherlands, and the United States. Each chapter discusses parenting and parent-child relationships in a broader cultural context, presenting within-group and cross-cultural data that provide readers with a rich understanding of parental values, beliefs, and practices that influence children’s developmental outcomes in a new country. For example, topics of investigation include cultural variation in the role of fathers, parenting of young children across cultures, the socialization of academic and emotional development, as well as the interrelationships among stress, acculturation processes, and parent-child relationship dynamics. This timely reference: • explores immigration and families from a global, multidisciplinary perspective; • focuses on immigrant children and youth in the family context;• challenges long-held assumptions about parenting and immigrant families;• bridges the knowledge gap between immigrant and non-immigrant family studies;• describes innovative methodologies for studying immigrant family relationships; and• establishes the relevance of these data to the wider family literature. Parental Roles and Relationships in Immigrant Families is not only useful to researchers and to family therapists and social workers attending to immigrant families, but also highly informative for persons interested in shaping immigration policy at the local, national, and global levels.

Cross-Cultural Schooling Experiences of Chinese Immigrant Families

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Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319461036
Total Pages : 296 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (194 download)

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Book Synopsis Cross-Cultural Schooling Experiences of Chinese Immigrant Families by : Shijing Xu

Download or read book Cross-Cultural Schooling Experiences of Chinese Immigrant Families written by Shijing Xu and published by Springer. This book was released on 2017-06-28 with total page 296 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book introduces the concept of reciprocal educational learning among cultures with very different historical and philosophical origins. The concept of reciprocal learning grows out of a four year study of immigrant Chinese family narrative experiences in a Western context. This book captures the lived moments of such transitional lives both in and out of school settings to demonstrate why a child would appear and disappear from different caregivers’ purview. Through the narrative lens of student and family life, the study illustrates the intersection of Confucian and Western philosophies of education and how their interaction creates complications as well as benefits for both traditions, hence, the idea of reciprocal learning.

Immigration, Cultural Identity, and Mental Health

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Publisher : Oxford University Press, USA
ISBN 13 : 0190661704
Total Pages : 297 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (96 download)

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Book Synopsis Immigration, Cultural Identity, and Mental Health by : Eugenio M. Rothe

Download or read book Immigration, Cultural Identity, and Mental Health written by Eugenio M. Rothe and published by Oxford University Press, USA. This book was released on 2020 with total page 297 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: ""Cultural Identity and Mental Health is a unique book because it defines culture and identity from a developmental perspective; therefore delving more deeply into the psychological, social and biological aspects of the immigrant and refugee experience in the U.S.A. and it explains how these experiences help to shape the development of the person's cultural identity. The book presents a very detailed discussion on the concept of acculturation and reviews all of the available literature on the subject. It also covers the sociological, anthropological, political and economic aspects of the immigrant and refugee experience and how these variables impact on mental health, thus presenting the experience of migration from a very broad and humanistic perspective. This book embarks on a deep exploration of the psychodynamic experience of immigration, while at the same time covering the epidemiological risk factors and protective factors related to the immigrant experience; thus, presenting ample and up to date empirically-based data. The book has a unique chapter addressing the true and accurate statistics of immigrant criminality and explores and analyzes this data under a new lens, helping to dispel the myths that result from contemporary anti-immigrant rhetoric. It also explains the types of crimes committed by immigrants, immigrants as victims of crime, cultural crimes, and motivations and the explanatory narratives presented by those who violate immigration laws. In addition, it also covers the history of immigrant criminality in the United States. The book has another important chapter addressing Immigrant Narratives and the role and importance of the personal-historical narrative in life-story construction, and the narrative as a therapeutic tool that can help to repair the trauma of loss and dislocation suffered by many immigrants when they leave their country of origin and begin a life in a new host country. It also introduces the role of the new immigrant narratives in contemporary literature and how this literature can be used by teachers and parents to help integrate the experiences of the different generations of the immigrant family, as well as to educate the younger generations of Americans about the country's new cultural diversity. There is a chapter that explains the new concept of Transnational Identities that result from the improved communication technologies, as well as from more accessible travel, which have deeply changed the immigrant experience and are part of the new phenomenon of globalization. Another interesting chapter analyzes the phenomenon of Return Migrations comparing the points of view of the returning immigrant with those of the ones who stayed behind, further analyzing this topic from a psychological and socioeconomic perspective. It also explains the psychological meaning of Pilgrimages in which the pilgrim visits, not necessarily the land of his or her actual birth or upbringing, but the land of the ancestral family history, in an attempt to bridge the gaps between the generations and to better integrate the pilgrim's sense of ethnic and cultural identity. In addition, this book also has an extensive and well-documented chapter on the refugee experience, outlining the current world-wide refugee crisis and explaining the sociopolitical reasons behind the crisis, as well as offering new evidence-based treatments for this population. This is a very comprehensive and well-written book that covers adults, children, adolescents and families and describes the sociocultural experience of the various generations of immigrants in their adaptation to life in the U.S. It also explores the immigration-related family separations as well as the psychological impact faced by the children that stay behind and later re-unify with their parents in the U.S., as well as those families that are separated by deportation. Finally, the book also presents a comprehensive chapter on culturally-sensitive and culturally-competent evidence-based mental health treatments for the various generations of these populations, including recommendations on ethno-pharmacology. One of the many strengths of the book are the very compelling and clearly explained clinical cases, which help to illustrate the theoretical concepts that are presented in each chapter. This book is a very timely and very valuable contribution to the bio-psycho-social study of the immigrant experience to the U.S. in its first generation and beyond, and is an essential tool for students and professionals in the social sciences, in the fields of social work, psychology, medicine and psychiatry, and for members of government organizations responsible for urban planning, policy and budgets, as well as for agencies dealing with the reception, placement and assistance of immigrants and refugees. ""--