Behavioral Finance in the Digital Era

Download Behavioral Finance in the Digital Era PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1003856071
Total Pages : 198 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (38 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Behavioral Finance in the Digital Era by : Elżbieta Kubińska

Download or read book Behavioral Finance in the Digital Era written by Elżbieta Kubińska and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2024-01-03 with total page 198 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Due to swift technological change and the resultant digital revolution, a wide range of new digital financial products and services have emerged in the financial markets, as witnessed in the context of the FinTech sector, the economics of blockchain and NFT issuance. This book takes an in-depth look at the challenges faced by individuals making investment decisions in a rapidly changing financial world and presents a concise and thorough overview of the multifaceted approach to investment and savings behavior. It explores behavioral digital finance, referencing the latest theories in economic psychology and financial markets and provides an analysis of the process of saving and investing in the context of our new digital reality, where an understanding of human – AI interaction, its benefits and threats is extremely important. It combines an accessible overview of classical and new behavioral theories, models of financial decision making as well as an analysis of the new trends in financial decision making. Special attention is given to financial decision support systems and the role of financial advice services, which are of growing importance, due to their increasing complexity and difficulty. The book combines theoretical considerations and wide-reaching empirical analyses from a representative sample of international respondents. It deals with the individual approach to human risk-taking, and human – AI interaction, its benefits, and threats. The book explores how people react to algorithms, what drives algorithm aversion and appreciation, and how understanding of those mechanisms can be employed to improve financial advisory systems, and also considers the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on financial behavior.

Modern Portfolio Theory and Investment Analysis

Download Modern Portfolio Theory and Investment Analysis PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1118469941
Total Pages : 754 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (184 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Modern Portfolio Theory and Investment Analysis by : Edwin J. Elton

Download or read book Modern Portfolio Theory and Investment Analysis written by Edwin J. Elton and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2014-01-21 with total page 754 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Modern Portfolio Theory and Investment Analysis, 9th Editionexamines the characteristics and analysis of individual securities, as well as the theory and practice of optimally combining securities into portfolios. It stresses the economic intuition behind the subject matter while presenting advanced concepts of investment analysis and portfolio management. The authors present material that captures the state of modern portfolio analysis, general equilibrium theory, and investment analysis in an accessible and intuitive manner.

A Behavioral Approach to Asset Pricing

Download A Behavioral Approach to Asset Pricing PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Elsevier
ISBN 13 : 0080482244
Total Pages : 636 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (84 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis A Behavioral Approach to Asset Pricing by : Hersh Shefrin

Download or read book A Behavioral Approach to Asset Pricing written by Hersh Shefrin and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2008-05-19 with total page 636 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Behavioral finance is the study of how psychology affects financial decision making and financial markets. It is increasingly becoming the common way of understanding investor behavior and stock market activity. Incorporating the latest research and theory, Shefrin offers both a strong theory and efficient empirical tools that address derivatives, fixed income securities, mean-variance efficient portfolios, and the market portfolio. The book provides a series of examples to illustrate the theory. The second edition continues the tradition of the first edition by being the one and only book to focus completely on how behavioral finance principles affect asset pricing, now with its theory deepened and enriched by a plethora of research since the first edition

Investor Behavior

Download Investor Behavior PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1118492986
Total Pages : 645 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (184 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Investor Behavior by : H. Kent Baker

Download or read book Investor Behavior written by H. Kent Baker and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2014-02-10 with total page 645 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: WINNER, Business: Personal Finance/Investing, 2015 USA Best Book Awards FINALIST, Business: Reference, 2015 USA Best Book Awards Investor Behavior provides readers with a comprehensive understanding and the latest research in the area of behavioral finance and investor decision making. Blending contributions from noted academics and experienced practitioners, this 30-chapter book will provide investment professionals with insights on how to understand and manage client behavior; a framework for interpreting financial market activity; and an in-depth understanding of this important new field of investment research. The book should also be of interest to academics, investors, and students. The book will cover the major principles of investor psychology, including heuristics, bounded rationality, regret theory, mental accounting, framing, prospect theory, and loss aversion. Specific sections of the book will delve into the role of personality traits, financial therapy, retirement planning, financial coaching, and emotions in investment decisions. Other topics covered include risk perception and tolerance, asset allocation decisions under inertia and inattention bias; evidenced based financial planning, motivation and satisfaction, behavioral investment management, and neurofinance. Contributions will delve into the behavioral underpinnings of various trading and investment topics including trader psychology, stock momentum, earnings surprises, and anomalies. The final chapters of the book examine new research on socially responsible investing, mutual funds, and real estate investing from a behavioral perspective. Empirical evidence and current literature about each type of investment issue are featured. Cited research studies are presented in a straightforward manner focusing on the comprehension of study findings, rather than on the details of mathematical frameworks.

The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity Revisited

Download The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity Revisited PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : University of Chicago Press
ISBN 13 : 0226473031
Total Pages : 715 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (264 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity Revisited by : Josh Lerner

Download or read book The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity Revisited written by Josh Lerner and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2012-04-15 with total page 715 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume offers contributions to questions relating to the economics of innovation and technological change. Central to the development of new technologies are institutional environments and among the topics discussed are the roles played by universities and the ways in which the allocation of funds affects innovation.

The Routledge Handbook of Housing Economics

Download The Routledge Handbook of Housing Economics PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1003834876
Total Pages : 351 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (38 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Routledge Handbook of Housing Economics by : Kenneth Gibb

Download or read book The Routledge Handbook of Housing Economics written by Kenneth Gibb and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2024-02-29 with total page 351 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Routledge Handbook of Housing Economics brings together an international panel of contributors to present a comprehensive overview of this important field within economics. Housing occupies an increasingly central role in modern society, dominating consumer assets and spending, forming an important part of social policy and being a large enough market to impact the macroeconomy. This handbook tackles these themes, along with other critical issues such as intergenerational housing inequality and the efficiency and social justice of housing interventions. This volume is structured in four main parts. It starts with eight chapters in microeconomics and housing. This is followed by two shorter sections on macroeconomics and finance. The final main part of the book is concerned with eight chapters on policy dimensions. While many of the chapters are rooted in mainstream economics and finance applied to housing, there are also chapters stressing institutional, behavioural and political economy orientations, as well as those that explicitly challenge more mainstream accounts. The contributing authors are based in Europe, North America and Australia and all draw in international literature to provide state of the art reviews of their topics. This carefully curated handbook will be essential reading for advanced students, researchers and policy makers in housing economics, urban economics, urban planning, public economics and real estate economics and finance. Chapter 22 of this book is freely available as a downloadable Open Access PDF at http://www.taylorfrancis.com under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives (CC-BY-NC-ND) 4.0 license.

Financial Behavior

Download Financial Behavior PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190270012
Total Pages : 681 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (92 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Financial Behavior by : H. Kent Baker

Download or read book Financial Behavior written by H. Kent Baker and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2017-05-02 with total page 681 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Financial Behavior: Players, Services, Products, and Markets provides a synthesis of the theoretical and empirical literature on the financial behavior of major stakeholders, financial services, investment products, and financial markets. The book offers a different way of looking at financial and emotional well-being and processing beliefs, emotions, and behaviors related to money. The book provides important insights about cognitive and emotional biases that influence various financial decision-makers, services, products, and markets. With diverse concepts and topics, the book brings together noted scholars and practitioners so readers can gain an in-depth understanding about this topic from experts from around the world. In today's financial setting, the discipline of behavioral finance is an ever-changing area that continues to evolve at a rapid pace. This book takes readers through the core topics and issues as well as the latest trends, cutting-edge research developments, and real-world situations. Additionally, discussion of research on various cognitive and emotional issues is covered throughout the book. Thus, this volume covers a breadth of content from theoretical to practical, while attempting to offer a useful balance of detailed and user-friendly coverage. Those interested in a broad survey will benefit as will those searching for more in-depth presentations of specific areas within this field of study. As the seventh book in the Financial Markets and Investment Series, Financial Behavior: Players, Services, Products, and Markets offers a fresh looks at the fascinating area of financial behavior.

Finance for Normal People

Download Finance for Normal People PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 019062647X
Total Pages : 489 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (96 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Finance for Normal People by : Meir Statman

Download or read book Finance for Normal People written by Meir Statman and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2017 with total page 489 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Finance for Normal People teaches behavioral finance to people like you and me - normal people, neither rational nor irrational. We are consumers, savers, investors, and managers - corporate managers, money managers, financial advisers, and all other financial professionals. The book guides us to know our wants-including hope for riches, protection from poverty, caring for family, sincere social responsibility and high social status. It teaches financial facts and human behavior, including making cognitive and emotional shortcuts and avoiding cognitive and emotional errors such as overconfidence, hindsight, exaggerated fear, and unrealistic hope. And it guides us to banish ignorance, gain knowledge, and increase the ratio of smart to foolish behavior on our way to what we want. These lessons of behavioral finance draw on what we know about us-normal people-including our wants, cognition, and emotions. And they draw on the roles of these factors in saving and spending, portfolio construction, returns we can expect from our investments, and whether we can hope to beat the market. Meir Statman, a founder of behavioral finance, draws on his extensive research and the research of many others to build a unified structure of behavioral finance. Its foundation blocks include normal behavior, behavioral portfolio theory, behavioral life-cycle theory, behavioral asset pricing theory, and behavioral market efficiency.

Maslowian Portfolio Theory

Download Maslowian Portfolio Theory PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Vubpress
ISBN 13 : 9789054878971
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (789 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Maslowian Portfolio Theory by : Philippe De Brouwer

Download or read book Maslowian Portfolio Theory written by Philippe De Brouwer and published by Vubpress. This book was released on 2012-02 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Written from the perspective of a financial investor, this account supports Behavioral Portfolio Theory, draws attention to the importance of asset-liability matching, and offers a natural framework for investor-adviser dialogue and mathematical portfolio optimization. In this system, investment goals--and not investor psychology--drive investment advice; "risk" depends on the investment objective and may be different in each sub-portfolio. This comprehensive book presents an extensive overview of existing portfolio theories and behavioral finance, and introduces new theories and its practical applications.

Portfolio Theory and Management

Download Portfolio Theory and Management PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 019931151X
Total Pages : 798 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (993 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Portfolio Theory and Management by : H. Kent Baker

Download or read book Portfolio Theory and Management written by H. Kent Baker and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2013-01-07 with total page 798 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Portfolio management is an ongoing process of constructing portfolios that balances an investor's objectives with the portfolio manager's expectations about the future. This dynamic process provides the payoff for investors. Portfolio management evaluates individual assets or investments by their contribution to the risk and return of an investor's portfolio rather than in isolation. This is called the portfolio perspective. Thus, by constructing a diversified portfolio, a portfolio manager can reduce risk for a given level of expected return, compared to investing in an individual asset or security. According to modern portfolio theory (MPT), investors who do not follow a portfolio perspective bear risk that is not rewarded with greater expected return. Portfolio diversification works best when financial markets are operating normally compared to periods of market turmoil such as the 2007-2008 financial crisis. During periods of turmoil, correlations tend to increase thus reducing the benefits of diversification. Portfolio management today emerges as a dynamic process, which continues to evolve at a rapid pace. The purpose of Portfolio Theory and Management is to take readers from the foundations of portfolio management with the contributions of financial pioneers up to the latest trends emerging within the context of special topics. The book includes discussions of portfolio theory and management both before and after the 2007-2008 financial crisis. This volume provides a critical reflection of what worked and what did not work viewed from the perspective of the recent financial crisis. Further, the book is not restricted to the U.S. market but takes a more global focus by highlighting cross-country differences and practices. This 30-chapter book consists of seven sections. These chapters are: (1) portfolio theory and asset pricing, (2) the investment policy statement and fiduciary duties, (3) asset allocation and portfolio construction, (4) risk management, (V) portfolio execution, monitoring, and rebalancing, (6) evaluating and reporting portfolio performance, and (7) special topics.

Keynes's Way to Wealth: Timeless Investment Lessons from The Great Economist

Download Keynes's Way to Wealth: Timeless Investment Lessons from The Great Economist PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : McGraw Hill Professional
ISBN 13 : 0071815481
Total Pages : 240 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (718 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Keynes's Way to Wealth: Timeless Investment Lessons from The Great Economist by : John F. Wasik

Download or read book Keynes's Way to Wealth: Timeless Investment Lessons from The Great Economist written by John F. Wasik and published by McGraw Hill Professional. This book was released on 2013-11-29 with total page 240 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: “Mr. Wasik’s distillation of how Keynes made--and then remade--his fortune is instructive. And the principles that Keynes followed have stood the test of time. As Mr. Wasik adds, 'The object of investing is to ensure prosperity, not to become obsessed with making money.'" The New York Times John Maynard Keynes indelibly made his mark on global economics... Few people know, however, that he was also a daring, steel-nerved investor who built a multimilliondollar fortune in the stock market while providing financial counsel to the likes of Winston Churchill and FDR. Now, you can learn from--and imitate--Keynes's success by examining the story of his lifeand investment strategies, masterfully told by awardwinning author John F. Wasik. As you follow Keynes from his early years with the Bloomsbury Group, through two world wars and the Great Depression Keynes's theories and practices come to life by way of the historic and personal events that shaped them. Like today's investors, Keynes faced markets roiled by panic, inflation, deflation, widespread unemployment, and war--and he developed a core set of principles to prosper in every climate. With the individual investor in mind, this straightforward guide makes it easy for investors at all levels to implement the action-oriented strategies presented in each of the 10 chapters and start investing like Keynes today by: Buying and holding quality stocks Ignoring short-term news Building diversified portfolios Trading contrary to market momentum Getting the most out of dividend stocks Using the eloquent insight of a seasoned investment writer, author John F. Wasik digs down into what investments Keynes owned, how he bought and sold them, how his theories guided his investments, and vice versa. He illustrates why Keynes's ideas, insights, and portfolio strategies have withstood the test of time, and how they will continue to produce financial gains for dedicated investors. In a nutshell, Wasik delivers a pragmatic guide to the style of portfolio management practiced by such Keynes followers as Benjamin Graham, Warren Buffett, and Charles Munger. The smart money gets richer in all types of weather, and so can you by following Keynes's Way to Wealth. PRAISE FOR KEYNES'S WAY TO WEALTH: "Intelligent investing ultimately depends on having an intelligent theory of the economy. This story of Keynes's life as an investor illustrates this beautifully." -- Robert Shiller, professor of Economics, Yale University; New York Times columnist; and author of Finance and the Good Society "The great economist John Maynard Keynes speculated and lost big-time. Out of the ashes, he evolved some great long-term investment strategies that will work for every prudent investor. While picking up tips, you'll also find that this book is a great read." -- Jane Bryant Quinn, author of Making the Most of Your Money NOW "I'd always heard Keynes was a talented investor but never knew any of the details. John Wasik's excellent book uncovers that story and reveals Keynes's considerable investing skills. If you enjoy studying great investors, add this book to your list." -- Joe Mansueto, founder and CEO, Morningstar, Inc. "With the possible exception of Mark Twain, no one surpasses John Maynard Keynes as a source of pithy financial wisdom and sayings. Keynes’s Way to Wealth mines the reasoning and investment experiences behind his quotability, a bounty that will simultaneously edify, entertain, and augment your bottom line." -- William J. Bernstein, author and principal, Efficient Frontier Advisors

Postmodern Portfolio Theory

Download Postmodern Portfolio Theory PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 1137544643
Total Pages : 345 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (375 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Postmodern Portfolio Theory by : James Ming Chen

Download or read book Postmodern Portfolio Theory written by James Ming Chen and published by Springer. This book was released on 2016-07-26 with total page 345 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This survey of portfolio theory, from its modern origins through more sophisticated, “postmodern” incarnations, evaluates portfolio risk according to the first four moments of any statistical distribution: mean, variance, skewness, and excess kurtosis. In pursuit of financial models that more accurately describe abnormal markets and investor psychology, this book bifurcates beta on either side of mean returns. It then evaluates this traditional risk measure according to its relative volatility and correlation components. After specifying a four-moment capital asset pricing model, this book devotes special attention to measures of market risk in global banking regulation. Despite the deficiencies of modern portfolio theory, contemporary finance continues to rest on mean-variance optimization and the two-moment capital asset pricing model. The term postmodern portfolio theory captures many of the advances in financial learning since the original articulation of modern portfolio theory. A comprehensive approach to financial risk management must address all aspects of portfolio theory, from the beautiful symmetries of modern portfolio theory to the disturbing behavioral insights and the vastly expanded mathematical arsenal of the postmodern critique. Mastery of postmodern portfolio theory’s quantitative tools and behavioral insights holds the key to the efficient frontier of risk management.

Managing Investment Portfolios

Download Managing Investment Portfolios PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 0470635347
Total Pages : 1255 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (76 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Managing Investment Portfolios by : John L. Maginn

Download or read book Managing Investment Portfolios written by John L. Maginn and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2010-03-18 with total page 1255 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "A rare blend of a well-organized, comprehensive guide to portfolio management and a deep, cutting-edge treatment of the key topics by distinguished authors who have all practiced what they preach. The subtitle, A Dynamic Process, points to the fresh, modern ideas that sparkle throughout this new edition. Just reading Peter Bernstein's thoughtful Foreword can move you forward in your thinking about this critical subject." —Martin L. Leibowitz, Morgan Stanley "Managing Investment Portfolios remains the definitive volume in explaining investment management as a process, providing organization and structure to a complex, multipart set of concepts and procedures. Anyone involved in the management of portfolios will benefit from a careful reading of this new edition." —Charles P. Jones, CFA, Edwin Gill Professor of Finance, College of Management, North Carolina State University

What Investors Really Want: Know What Drives Investor Behavior and Make Smarter Financial Decisions

Download What Investors Really Want: Know What Drives Investor Behavior and Make Smarter Financial Decisions PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : McGraw Hill Professional
ISBN 13 : 0071741666
Total Pages : 305 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (717 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis What Investors Really Want: Know What Drives Investor Behavior and Make Smarter Financial Decisions by : Meir Statman

Download or read book What Investors Really Want: Know What Drives Investor Behavior and Make Smarter Financial Decisions written by Meir Statman and published by McGraw Hill Professional. This book was released on 2010-11-19 with total page 305 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A pioneer in the field of behavioral finance presents an investment guide based on what really drives investors Perfectly timed to give readers a real edge for investing in post-crash markets Author is a leading authority on the theory and application of behavioral finance and a fixture in The Wall Street Journal and other leading media outlets Poised to become the definitive text on how investors and managers make financial decisions—and how these decisions are reflected in financial markets

Advances in Accounting Behavioral Research

Download Advances in Accounting Behavioral Research PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Emerald Group Publishing
ISBN 13 : 183608286X
Total Pages : 212 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (36 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Advances in Accounting Behavioral Research by : Khondkar E. Karim

Download or read book Advances in Accounting Behavioral Research written by Khondkar E. Karim and published by Emerald Group Publishing. This book was released on 2024-10-28 with total page 212 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The theme of Volume 28 is emerging theory, methods, and applications towards behavioral research in accounting and audit. Chapters collected here examine topics ranging from CFO ethnicity and impact on financial reporting to career imprinting to safeguards in crowdfunding and more.

Tech Stock Valuation

Download Tech Stock Valuation PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Elsevier
ISBN 13 : 0080492339
Total Pages : 291 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (84 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Tech Stock Valuation by : Mark Hirschey

Download or read book Tech Stock Valuation written by Mark Hirschey and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2003-09-18 with total page 291 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Tech Stock Valuation extends the R&D literature by providing detailed direct evidence on the market value implications of inventive and innovative output. Specifically, the text demonstrates that stock-price effects of patent output are most pronounced in the case of high-quality patents, where patent quality is measured by scientific merit. Scientific measures of patent quality give students a valuable new tool that can be used to measure R&D program effectiveness. At the same time, it gives investors a new tool to help them assess the value of hard-to-measure intangible assets. The book is an ideal resource for professionals working in finance and accounting; investment professionals and industry analysts who work for companies that engage in research and development; MBA students; economists working in industrial organizations, microeconomics, and contract theory. - Provides detailed direct evidence on the market value implications of inventive and innovative output - Based on recent research, much of which Dr. Hirschey has pioneered - Gives financial professionals a new tool for assessing R&D quality and its relation to market valuation

The Toolbox Revisited

Download The Toolbox Revisited PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 232 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Toolbox Revisited by : Clifford Adelman

Download or read book The Toolbox Revisited written by Clifford Adelman and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page 232 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Toolbox Revisited is a data essay that follows a nationally representative cohort of students from high school into postsecondary education, and asks what aspects of their formal schooling contribute to completing a bachelor's degree by their mid-20s. The universe of students is confined to those who attended a four-year college at any time, thus including students who started out in other types of institutions, particularly community colleges.